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The spatiotemporal variations in and main factors of the VMFDI and agroecosystem responses were analyzed via the Theil\u2013Sen median and Mann\u2013Kendall tests and Liang\u2013Kleeman information flow. The results revealed the following: (1) The VMFDI effectively monitors regional drought and is more sensitive than other indices like the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) and GRACE drought severity index and single variables. (2) VMFDI values fluctuated seasonally in the Yellow River Basin, peaking in August and reaching their lowest in March. The basin becomes drier in winter but wetter in spring, summer, and autumn, with the middle and lower reaches, particularly Shaanxi and Gansu, being drought-prone. The VMFDI values in the agroecosystem were lower. (3) SM and VPD dominated drought at the watershed and agroecosystem scales, respectively. Key agroecosystem indicators, including greenness (NDVI), gross primary productivity (GPP), water use efficiency (WUE), and leaf area index (LAI), were negatively correlated with drought (p &lt; 0.05). When VPD exceeded a threshold range of 7.11\u20137.17 ha, the relationships between these indicators and VPD shifted from positive to negative. The specific VPD thresholds in maize and wheat systems were 8.03\u20138.57 ha and 7.15 ha, respectively. Suggestions for drought risk management were also provided. This study provides a new method and high-resolution data for accurately monitoring drought, which can aid in mitigating agricultural drought risks and promoting high-quality agricultural development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16244666","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]],"date-time":"2024-12-13T10:34:12Z","timestamp":1734086052000},"page":"4666","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["An Integrated Drought Index (Vapor Pressure Deficit\u2013Soil Moisture\u2013Sun-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence Dryness Index, VMFDI) Based on Multisource Data and Its Applications in Agricultural Drought Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Caiyun","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Space Sciences, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy and Solar-Terrestrial Environment, School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Space Sciences, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]},{"given":"Tianhe","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Space Sciences, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy and Solar-Terrestrial Environment, School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]},{"given":"Siqi","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy and Solar-Terrestrial Environment, School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]},{"given":"Jian","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy and Solar-Terrestrial Environment, School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]},{"given":"Lulu","family":"Si","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Water and Environmental Engineering (IIAMA), Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"given":"Ran","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy and Solar-Terrestrial Environment, School of Space Science and Technology, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]},{"given":"Hermann Josef","family":"Kaufmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Space Sciences, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2754","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22314-w","article-title":"Evidence of anthropogenic impacts on global drought frequency, duration, and intensity","volume":"12","author":"Chiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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