{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T06:30:31Z","timestamp":1773901831259,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Guangdong Ocean University","award":["060302122304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["060302122304"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Ocean University","award":["202428"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202428"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Ocean University","award":["42076162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42076162"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Ocean University","award":["311020004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["311020004"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["060302122304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["060302122304"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["202428"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202428"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42076162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42076162"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["311020004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["311020004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["060302122304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["060302122304"]}]},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["202428"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202428"]}]},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["42076162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42076162"]}]},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["311020004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["311020004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) from human activities underscores the need to understand air\u2013sea CO2 flux in marine environments, particularly in marginal seas like the South China Sea (SCS). This research analyzes the spatial and temporal patterns of air\u2013sea CO2 flux across four typical regions of the SCS: the northern SCS, western SCS, SCS basin, and northeastern SCS. Our results show that the SCS serves as a carbon source from spring to autumn and shifts to a carbon sink in winter. The northern SCS exhibits strong carbon sink behavior during winter, transitioning to a source in warmer months, while the western SCS and SCS basin consistently act as carbon sources year-round, with summer peaks. The northeastern SCS acts as a source in warmer months, becoming a weak sink in winter. Partial correlation analysis reveals that temperature and wind speed significantly influence air\u2013sea CO2 flux, though regional differences exist. Notably, chlorophyll-a in the northern SCS is negatively correlated with air\u2013sea CO2 flux, indicating that high primary productivity enhances CO2 absorption, whereas other regions show contrasting relationships. These findings provide valuable insights into the complex carbon cycle mechanisms in the SCS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16244724","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T03:40:56Z","timestamp":1734493256000},"page":"4724","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Spatiotemporal Evolution of Air\u2013Sea CO2 Flux in the South China Sea and Its Response to Environmental Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ying","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Coastal Environmental Protection and Ecological Resilience, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Cooperative Research Center for Nearshore Marine Environmental Change, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Coastal Environmental Protection and Ecological Resilience, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Cooperative Research Center for Nearshore Marine Environmental Change, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6225-8408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hui","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Coastal Environmental Protection and Ecological Resilience, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Cooperative Research Center for Nearshore Marine Environmental Change, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-10-2141-2018","article-title":"Global Carbon Budget 2018","volume":"10","author":"Andrew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3269","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-12-3269-2020","article-title":"Global Carbon Budget 2020","volume":"12","author":"Friedlingstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2169","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-2169-2013","article-title":"Global ocean storage of anthropogenic carbon","volume":"10","author":"Khatiwala","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1097403","article-title":"The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2","volume":"305","author":"Sabine","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2022.104879","article-title":"Estimation of sea surface pCO2 and air\u2013sea CO2 flux in the East China Sea using in-situ and satellite data over the period 2000\u20132016","volume":"254","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-02738-z","article-title":"Continental shelves as a variable but increasing global sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide","volume":"9","author":"Laruelle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6509","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-6509-2013","article-title":"Air\u2013sea exchanges of CO2 in the world\u2019s coastal seas","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, L.-Q., Cai, W.-J., Wanninkhof, R., Wang, Y., and L\u00fcger, H. (2008). Air-sea CO2 fluxes on the U.S. South Atlantic Bight: Spatial and seasonal variability. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JC004366"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5371","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-12-5371-2015","article-title":"Dynamics of air\u2013sea CO2 fluxes in the northwestern European shelf based on voluntary observing ship and satellite observations","volume":"12","author":"Marrec","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(99)00030-5","article-title":"The seasonal cycle of carbon dioxide in Baltic Sea surface waters","volume":"22","author":"Thomas","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s00343-011-9931-y","article-title":"Seasonal-to-interannual variability of chlorophyll in central western South China Sea extracted from SeaWiFS","volume":"29","author":"Qiu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(2000)030<1450:ULCITS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Upper-Layer Circulation in the South China Sea","volume":"30","author":"Qu","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JC001084","article-title":"A general circulation model study of the dynamics of the upper ocean circulation of the South China Sea","volume":"107","author":"Yang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7775","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-7775-2013","article-title":"Seasonal variations of sea\u2013air CO2 fluxes in the largest tropical marginal sea (South China Sea) based on multiple-year underway measurements","volume":"10","author":"Zhai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2020.102272","article-title":"Partial pressure of CO2 and air-sea CO2 fluxes in the South China Sea: Synthesis of an 18-year dataset","volume":"182","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-011-9610-1","article-title":"Diversity and abundance of ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes in sediments from the coastal Pearl River estuary to the South China Sea","volume":"100","author":"Cao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antonie Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marchem.2006.01.007","article-title":"Carbonate chemistry and projected future changes in pH and CaCO3 saturation state of the South China Sea","volume":"101","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.3319\/TAO.2005.16.2.445(O)","article-title":"Seasonal Variability of Carbon Chemistry at the SEATS Time-Series Site, Northern South China Sea Between 2002 and 2003","volume":"16","author":"Chou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marchem.2004.12.002","article-title":"The partial pressure of carbon dioxide and air\u2013sea fluxes in the northern South China Sea in spring, summer and autumn","volume":"96","author":"Zhai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4203(01)00026-3","article-title":"Methane and pCO2 in the Kuroshio and the South China Sea during maximum summer surface temperatures","volume":"75","author":"Rehder","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2007.05.003","article-title":"Temporal variations in the carbonate system in the upper layer at the SEATS station","volume":"54","author":"Tseng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"55","article-title":"Distributions of partial pressure of carbon dioxide and sea-air CO2 flux in the western South China Sea in autumn","volume":"35","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Trop. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-8-383-2016","article-title":"A multi-decade record of high-quality fCO2 data in version 3 of the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT)","volume":"8","author":"Bakker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2117","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12457","article-title":"From silk to satellite: Half a century of ocean colour anomalies in the Northeast Atlantic","volume":"20","author":"Raitsos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-8-297-2016","article-title":"The Global Ocean Data Analysis Project version 2 (GLODAPv2)\u2014An internally consistent data product for the world ocean","volume":"8","author":"Olsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2021.103604","article-title":"Sensing the ocean biological carbon pump from space: A review of capabilities, concepts, research gaps and future developments","volume":"217","author":"Brewin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1002\/fee.2129","article-title":"Satellites will address critical science priorities for quantifying ocean carbon","volume":"18","author":"Shutler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/S1464-1909(99)00020-9","article-title":"Estimating the interannual variability of the air-sea CO2 flux in the east equatorial Pacific","volume":"24","author":"Etcheto","year":"1999","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Part B Hydrol. Ocean. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lohrenz, S.E., and Cai, W.-J. (2006). Satellite ocean color assessment of air-sea fluxes of CO2 in a river-dominated coastal margin. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023942"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2016.09.004","article-title":"Remote estimation of surface pCO2 on the West Florida Shelf","volume":"128","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-1405-2009","article-title":"Estimating the monthly pCO2 distribution in the North Atlantic using a self-organizing neural network","volume":"6","author":"Telszewski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010632","article-title":"A mechanistic semi-analytical method for remotely sensing sea surface pCO2 in river-dominated coastal oceans: A case study from the East China Sea","volume":"120","author":"Bai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2023.104386","article-title":"Ocean carbon from space: Current status and priorities for the next decade","volume":"240","author":"Brewin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Bai, Y., He, X., Yu, S., and Song, Z. (2023). Remote Sensing Based Sea Surface Partial Pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and Air-Sea CO2 Flux (FCO2) in the South China Sea (2003\u20132019), Zenodo. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1","article-title":"Construction of a High Spatiotemporal Resolution Dataset of Satellite-Derived pCO2 and Air\u2013Sea CO2 Flux in the South China Sea (2003\u20132019)","volume":"61","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2006.04.014","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variability of phytoplankton in the Gulf of C\u00e1diz through remote sensing images","volume":"53","author":"Navarro","year":"2006","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.1998.0193","article-title":"The empirical mode decomposition and the Hilbert spectrum for nonlinear and non-stationary time series analysis","volume":"454","author":"Huang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.2003.1221","article-title":"A study of the characteristics of white noise using the empirical mode decomposition method","volume":"460","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrg.20041","article-title":"Two phytoplankton blooms near Luzon Strait generated by lingering Typhoon Parma","volume":"118","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"4009","article-title":"Coastal upwelling in summer 2000 in the northeastern South China Sea","volume":"117","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2021.104393","article-title":"Regional differences in seasonal variation of air\u2013sea CO2 exchange in the Yellow Sea","volume":"218","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JC016258","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016258","article-title":"Effects of Typhoons on Surface Seawater pCO2 and Air-Sea CO2 Fluxes in the Northern South China Sea","volume":"125","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C10021","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JC006013","article-title":"Influence of El Ni\u00f1o on the sea-to-air CO2 flux at the SEATS time-series site, northern South China Sea","volume":"115","author":"Sheu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L16801","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023387","article-title":"The trochoid-like track in Typhoon Dujuan (2003)","volume":"32","author":"Hong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Shi, H., and Zhao, H. (2021). Summer Phytoplankton Blooms Induced by Upwelling in the Western South China Sea. Front. Mar. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.740130"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, H., Zhao, H., Han, G., and Dong, C. (2021). Spatio-Temporal Variations of Winter Phytoplankton Blooms Northwest of the Luzon Island in the South China Sea. Front. Mar. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.637499"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4203(01)00023-8","article-title":"Seasonal variation in total inorganic carbon and its controlling processes in surface waters of the western North Pacific subtropical gyre","volume":"75","author":"Ishii","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1002\/iroh.200811122","article-title":"Impact of Environment on the Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Rotifers in the Tidal Guangzhou Segment of the Pearl River Estuary, China","volume":"94","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Hydrobiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seares.2024.102543","article-title":"Dynamic of upwelling variability in southern Indonesia region revealed from satellite data: Role of ENSO and IOD","volume":"202","author":"Rachman","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sea Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JC017550","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JC017550","article-title":"Analysis of the Seasonal and Interannual Variations of Air-Sea CO2 Flux in the Chukchi Sea Using a Coupled Ocean-Sea Ice-Biogeochemical Model","volume":"126","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5627","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073814","article-title":"Variability and trends in surface seawater pCO2 and CO2 flux in the Pacific Ocean","volume":"44","author":"Sutton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparison of air-sea CO2 flux and biological productivity in the South China Sea, East China Sea, and Yellow Sea: A three-dimensional physical-biogeochemical modeling study","volume":"36","author":"Ji","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/24\/4724\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:54:19Z","timestamp":1760115259000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/24\/4724"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16244724"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16244724","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]}}}