{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T19:14:53Z","timestamp":1784142893764,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42404017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42404017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20103237789"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20103237789"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["01151601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01151601"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024JJ8377"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ8377"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University","award":["42404017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42404017"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University","award":["20103237789"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20103237789"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University","award":["01151601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01151601"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University","award":["2024JJ8377"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ8377"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University Guangzhou Institute of Technology","award":["42404017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42404017"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University Guangzhou Institute of Technology","award":["20103237789"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20103237789"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University Guangzhou Institute of Technology","award":["01151601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01151601"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Starting Foundation of Xidian University Guangzhou Institute of Technology","award":["2024JJ8377"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ8377"]}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42404017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42404017"]}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["20103237789"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20103237789"]}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["01151601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01151601"]}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2024JJ8377"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ8377"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Floods are a significant and pervasive threat globally, exacerbated by climate change and increasing extreme weather events. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and its follow-on mission (GRACE-FO) provide crucial insights into terrestrial water storage anomalies (TWSA), which are vital for understanding flood dynamics. However, the observational gap between these missions presents challenges for flood monitoring, affecting the estimation of long-term trends and limiting the analysis of interannual variability, thereby impacting overall analysis accuracy. Reconstructing the missing data between GRACE and GRACE-FO is essential for systematically understanding the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and driving mechanisms of interannual changes in regional water reserves. In this study, the Generative Adversarial Imputation Network (GAIN) is applied to improve the monitoring capability for flood events in the Pearl River Basin (PRB). First, the GRACE\/GRACE-FO TWSA data gap is imputed with GAIN and compared with long short-term memory (LSTM) and k-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) methods. Using the reconstructed data, we develop the Flood Potential Index (FPI) by integrating GRACE-based TWSA with precipitation data and analyze key characteristics of FPI variability against actual flood events. The results indicate that GAIN effectively predicts the GRACE\/GRACE-FO TWSA gap, with an average improvement of approximately 50.94% over LSTM and 68.27% over KNN. The reconstructed FPI proves effective in monitoring flood events in the PRB, validating the reliability of the reconstructed TWSA. Additionally, the FPI achieves a predictive accuracy of 79.7% for real flood events, indicating that short-term flood characteristics are better captured using TWSA. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of GAIN in enhancing data continuity, providing a reliable framework for large-scale flood risk assessment and offering valuable insights for flood management in vulnerable regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16244727","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T09:43:03Z","timestamp":1734514983000},"page":"4727","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Enhanced Flood Monitoring in the Pearl River Basin via GAIN-Reconstructed GRACE Terrestrial Water Storage Anomalies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8286-1733","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Guangzhou 510555, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4141-4234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haiyang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing 210017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuguang","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, Naval University of Engineering, Wuhan 430033, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1271-7968","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guigen","family":"Nie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yawei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The First Surveying and Mapping Institute of Hunan Province, Changsha 410114, China"},{"name":"Hunan Engineering Research Center of 3D Real Scene Construction and Application Technology, Changsha 410114, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1979","article-title":"Future flood losses in major coastal cities","volume":"3","author":"Hallegatte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"10","article-title":"Rethinking flood hazard at the global scale","volume":"19","author":"Schumann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-15-521-2023","article-title":"Flood detection using Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) terrestrial water storage and extreme precipitation data","volume":"15","author":"Zhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"CRED (2024, April 15). EM-DAT\u2014The International Disaster Database. Available online: https:\/\/www.emdat.be\/."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1007\/s11027-016-9713-0","article-title":"A methodological framework to operationalize climate risk management: Managing sovereign climate-related extreme event risk in Austria","volume":"22","author":"Schinko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-015-1645-6","article-title":"A fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model for flood risk based on the combination weight of game theory","volume":"77","author":"Lai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2024GL108855","DOI":"10.1029\/2024GL108855","article-title":"Frequency Bias Causes Overestimation of Climate Change Impacts on Global Flood Occurrence","volume":"51","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1038\/444562a","article-title":"Water from on high","volume":"444","author":"Lettenmaier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2004.02328.x","article-title":"Global time variations of hydrological signals from GRACE satellite gravimetry","volume":"158","author":"Ramillien","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2203","article-title":"River basin flood potential inferred using GRACE gravity observations at several months lead time","volume":"7","author":"Reager","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W12526","DOI":"10.1029\/2010WR009383","article-title":"The 2009 exceptional Amazon flood and interannual terrestrial water storage change observed by GRACE","volume":"46","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16487","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2024.3454312","article-title":"A GNSS Terrestrial Water Storage Inversion Method Based on GRACE Spatial Constraints","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08238","article-title":"Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India","volume":"460","author":"Rodell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.02.005","article-title":"Interannual variability in water storage over 2003\u20132008 in the Amazon Basin from GRACE space gravimetry, in situ river level and precipitation data","volume":"114","author":"Xavier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-014-9306-y","article-title":"Requirements Analysis for Future Satellite Gravity Mission Improved-GRACE","volume":"36","author":"Zheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L11501","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL019779","article-title":"Time-variable gravity from GRACE: First results","volume":"31","author":"Wahr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2109086118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2109086118","article-title":"GRACE Follow-On revealed Bangladesh was flooded early in the 2020 monsoon season due to premature soil saturation","volume":"118","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L09607","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL019920","article-title":"The gravity recovery and climate experiment: Mission overview and early results","volume":"31","author":"Tapley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.08.006","article-title":"Drought and flood monitoring for a large karst plateau in Southwest China using extended GRACE data","volume":"155","author":"Long","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7324","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70607324","article-title":"Droughts and Floods in the La Plata Basin in Soil Moisture Data and GRACE","volume":"7","author":"Abelen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.292","article-title":"Drought evaluation using the GRACE terrestrial water storage deficit over the Yangtze River Basin, China","volume":"634","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Wang, W., Zhang, C., Wen, H., Zhong, Y., Zhu, Y., and Li, Z. (2019). Bridging Terrestrial Water Storage Anomaly During GRACE\/GRACE-FO Gap Using SSA Method: A Case Study in China. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19194144"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2021.125972","article-title":"Bridging the Gap between GRACE and GRACE Follow-on Monthly Gravity Field Solutions using Improved Multichannel Singular Spectrum Analysis","volume":"594","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2020.103683","article-title":"A data-driven approach to generate past GRACE-like terrestrial water storage solution by calibrating the land surface model simulations","volume":"143","author":"Jing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-022-10716-y","article-title":"Filling the gap between GRACE and GRACE-FO data using a model integrating variational mode decomposition and long short-term memory: A case study of Northwest China","volume":"82","author":"Chu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2020.100285","article-title":"A comprehensive survey and analysis of generative models in machine learning","volume":"38","author":"Gm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1145\/3422622","article-title":"Generativdversarial networks","volume":"63","author":"Goodfellow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Yoon, J., Jordon, J., and Schaar, M. (2018, January 10\u201315). GAIN: Missing Data Imputation using Generative Adversarial Nets. Proceedings of the 35th International Conference on Machine Learning, PMLR, Stockholm, Sweden. Available online: https:\/\/proceedings.mlr.press\/v80\/yoon18a.html."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, W., Fong, D.Y.T., Yoon, J.-S., Wan, E.Y.F., Bedford, L.E., Tang, E.H.M., and Lam, C.L.K. (2021). Generative adversarial networks for imputing missing data for big data clinical research. BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-021-01272-3"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7919","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2021.3074564","article-title":"Missing Data Repairs for Traffic Flow with Self-Attention Generative Adversarial Imputation Net","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19685","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-023-08840-2","article-title":"A systematic review of generative adversarial imputation network in missing data imputation","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L23402","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL040826","article-title":"Global terrestrial water storage capacity and flood potential using GRACE","volume":"36","author":"Reager","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-16-1011-2016","article-title":"Evaluating flood potential with GRACE in the United States","volume":"16","author":"Molodtsova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, Z., Li, Y., Cui, L., Yao, C., Xu, C., Yin, M., and Zhu, C. (2023). Spatiotemporal Evaluation of the Flood Potential Index and its Driving Factors across the Volga River Basin Based on Combined Satellite Gravity Observations. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15174144"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2022.128765","article-title":"Modified Flood Potential Index (MFPI) for Flood Monitoring in Terrestrial Water Storage Depletion Basin Using GRACE Estimates","volume":"616","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1248.2012.00084","article-title":"Responses of Hydrological Processes to Climate Change in the Zhujiang River Basin in the 21st Century","volume":"3","author":"Tong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Clim. Chang. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu, X., Qiu, J., Cao, B., Cai, S., Niu, K., and Yang, X. (2022). Mapping Soil Erosion Dynamics (1990\u20132020) in the Pearl River Basin. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14235949"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Tang, Q., and Leng, G. (2022). Pluvial, Fluvial and Coastal Flood Risks and Sustainable Flood Management in the Pearl River Delta Under Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. Available online: https:\/\/eprints.gla.ac.uk\/268657\/."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frappart, F., and Ramillien, G. (2018). Monitoring Groundwater Storage Changes Using the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) Satellite Mission: A Review. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060829"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013007","article-title":"High resolution CSR GRACE RL05 mascons","volume":"121","author":"Save","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Wiese, D.N., Yuan, D.-N., Boening, C., Landerer, F.W., and Watkins, M.M. (2023, December 20). JPL GRACE Mascon Ocean, Ice, and Hydrology Equivalent Water Height Release 06 Coastal Resolution Improvement (CRI) Filtered Version 1.0. Ver. 1.0. PO.DAAC, CA, USA, Available online: https:\/\/podaac.jpl.nasa.gov\/dataset\/TELLUS_GRACE_MASCON_CRI_GRID_RL06_V1."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-019-01252-y","article-title":"Regularization and error characterization of GRACE mascons","volume":"93","author":"Loomis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-20-0332.1","article-title":"Drought and Flood Characterization and Connection to Climate Variability in the Pearl River Basin in Southern China Using Long-Term GRACE and Reanalysis Data","volume":"34","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1099192","article-title":"GRACE Measurements of Mass Variability in the Earth System","volume":"305","author":"Tapley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Huffman, G.J., Stocker, E.F., Bolvin, D.T., Nelkin, E.J., and Tan, J. (2023, December 20). 2023 GPM IMERG Final Precipitation L3 1 month 0.1 degree x 0.1 degree V07, Greenbelt, MD, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Available online: https:\/\/data.nasa.gov\/dataset\/GPM-IMERG-Final-Precipitation-L3-1-day-0-1-degree-\/mf6v-vuh9\/data."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Z., Zhu, X., Pan, Y., and Zhang, J. (2017). Assessing Terrestrial Water Storage and Flood Potential Using GRACE Data in the Yangtze River Basin, China. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9101011"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.143.1.7063747","article-title":"The meaning and use of the area under a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve","volume":"143","author":"Hanley","year":"1982","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(96)00142-2","article-title":"The Use of the Area under the ROC Curve in the Evaluation of Machine Learning Algorithms","volume":"30","author":"Bradley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-021-01472-1","article-title":"Stochastic Model Reliability in GNSS Baseline Solution","volume":"95","author":"Borko","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geod."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/24\/4727\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:54:28Z","timestamp":1760115268000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/24\/4727"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16244727"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16244727","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]}}}