{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T04:42:56Z","timestamp":1766983376236,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Airborne inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging of maneuvering targets is important for maritime surveillance. Long coherent processing intervals (CPIs) can bring better resolution and signal-to-clutter-plus-noise ratio (SCNR). Due to the change in the effective rotation vector (ERV), the conventional Range-Doppler (RD) algorithm is not appropriate for producing a well-focused image. To resolve the above issue, we propose a long CPI imaging algorithm through ERV estimation and data resampling. This algorithm estimates the Doppler length of the sub-aperture image by complex signal kurtosis (CSK) at first. Then, the change in the ERV can be estimated because the ship Doppler length is always proportional to the ERV. Finally, the echo is resampled according to the estimation of the time-varying ERV to obtain the echo from a constant ERV. Computer simulation experiments and measured data have verified the effectiveness of the proposed method. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can achieve ISAR imaging with longer CPIs at low SNR and inhomogeneous clutter.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16244758","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T08:40:25Z","timestamp":1734684025000},"page":"4758","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Long Coherent Processing Intervals for ISAR Imaging: Combined Complex Signal Kurtosis and Data Resampling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Wenao","family":"Ruan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Chang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2004.1292177","article-title":"Airborne high-resolution ISAR imaging of ship","volume":"40","author":"Hajduch","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5147","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2022.3183196","article-title":"An Efficient Preprocessing Approach for Airborne Hybrid SAR and ISAR Imaging of Ship Target Based on Kernel Distribution","volume":"15","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"5215713","article-title":"Hybrid SAR-ISAR Image Formation via Joint FrFT-WVD Processing for BFSAR Ship Target High-Resolution Imaging","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Wang, Y., and Zhu, P. (2017, January 14\u201316). Ship Fuzzy Recognition Based on Superstructure with Maximum Membership Rule. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Communications, Signal Processing, and Systems (ICCSPS), Tianjin Normal Univ, Harbin, China."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Guo, Q., Xu, Z., Jin, X., Su, F., and Li, X. (2024). A Multiple Targets ISAR Imaging Method with Removal of Micro-Motion Connection Based on Joint Constraints. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16193647"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7010","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2977665","article-title":"Rotation Parameters Estimation and Cross-Range Scaling Research for Range Instantaneous Doppler ISAR Images","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2009.2013876","article-title":"ISAR Imaging of a Ship Target Using Product High-Order Matched-Phase Transform","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn:20080003","article-title":"New ISAR imaging algorithm based on modified Wigner-Ville distribution","volume":"3","author":"Xing","year":"2009","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1838","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2012.6178106","article-title":"ISAR 2-D Imaging of Uniformly Rotating Targets via Matching Pursuit","volume":"48","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1109\/LSP.2015.2390777","article-title":"Coherent Integration for Maneuvering Target Detection Based on Radon-Lv\u2019s Distribution","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2017.2667538","article-title":"ISAR Imaging of Nonuniformly Rotating Target Based on the Multicomponent CPS Model Under Low SNR Environment","volume":"53","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2641498","article-title":"Fast and Accurate ISAR Focusing Based on a Doppler Parameter Estimation Algorithm","volume":"14","author":"Noviello","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140499","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2943576","article-title":"A Novel ISAR Imaging Method for Maneuvering Target Based on AM-QFM Model Under Low SNR Environment","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11180","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2936251","article-title":"ISAR Imaging of Maneuvering Target Based on the Estimation of Time Varying Amplitude With Gaussian Window","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1109\/78.286949","article-title":"A Fast Spectral Estimation Algorithm-Based on the FFT","volume":"42","author":"Gough","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Wu, R.B., and Chen, V.C. (2000, January 24\u201328). A robust autofocus algorithm for ISAR imaging of moving targets. Proceedings of the Conference on Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery VII, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.396331"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"445","article-title":"A New Algorithm of Signal Decomposition and Its Application in ISAR Imaging of Maneuvering Targets","volume":"35","author":"Yong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Electron. Sin."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2766670","article-title":"A Novel Non-Uniform Rotational Motion Estimation and Compensation Method for Maneuvering Targets ISAR Imaging Utilizing Particle Swarm Optimization","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5214621","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2021.3113007","article-title":"Ultrawideband ISAR Imaging of Maneuvering Targets With Joint High-Order Motion Compensation and Azimuth Scaling","volume":"60","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"5210322","article-title":"Increase the Coherent Processing Interval for SAR Focusing of Maneuvering Ships by Data Resampling","volume":"62","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6447","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2906054","article-title":"Ship Detection Based on Complex Signal Kurtosis in Single-Channel SAR Imagery","volume":"57","author":"Leng","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Leng, X., Ji, K., Xiong, B., and Kuang, G. (October, January 26). Ship Target Signature Indication Based on Complex Signal Kurtosis in Sar Images. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Waikoloa, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5208312","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2021.3075946","article-title":"Complex Signal Kurtosis\u2014Indicator of Ship Target Signature in SAR Images","volume":"60","author":"Leng","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"4011305","article-title":"Unsupervised Ship Detection for Single-Channel SAR Images Based on Multiscale Saliency and Complex Signal Kurtosis","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2007.4383594","article-title":"Improved global range alignment for ISAR","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2008.2010562","article-title":"Robust ISAR Range Alignment via Minimizing the Entropy of the Average Range Profile","volume":"6","author":"Zhu","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1109\/7.303752","article-title":"Phase Gradient Autofocus\u2014A Robust Tool for High-Resolution Sar Phase Correction","volume":"30","author":"Wahl","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1109\/7.532283","article-title":"Motion compensation for ISAR via centroid tracking","volume":"32","author":"Itoh","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2032241","article-title":"Coherent MapDrift Technique","volume":"48","author":"Samczynski","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"4017505","article-title":"Optimal Time Selection for ISAR Imaging of Ship Targets Based on Time-Frequency Analysis of Multiple Scatterers","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3475","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2022.3161204","article-title":"A Novel Optimal Time Window Determination Approach for ISAR Imaging of Ship Targets","volume":"15","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5222820","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2022.3147266","article-title":"Integration of Super-Resolution ISAR Imaging and Fine Motion Compensation for Complex Maneuvering Ship Targets Under High Sea State","volume":"60","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2017.2756518","article-title":"Data-Driven Motion Compensation Techniques for Noncooperative ISAR Imaging","volume":"54","author":"Vehmas","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1109\/7.745691","article-title":"SAR imaging of moving targets","volume":"35","author":"Perry","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036525","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/36525","article-title":"Fixed-point algorithms for the blind separation of arbitrary complex-valued non-Gaussian","volume":"2007","author":"Douglas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eurasip J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1109\/TNN.2007.908636","article-title":"A class of complex ICA algorithms based on the kurtosis cost function","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5400","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2010.2054085","article-title":"Essential Statistics and Tools for Complex Random Variables","volume":"58","author":"Eriksson","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"and Doerry, A. (2008). Ship Dynamics for Maritime ISAR Imaging, Sandia National Laboratories.","DOI":"10.2172\/929523"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Z., Dong, G., and Liu, H. (2023). SAR Image Quality Assessment: From Sample-Wise to Class-Wise. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15082110"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2024, October 01). Sentinels Scientific Data Hub. Available online: https:\/\/scihub.copernicus.eu."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/24\/4758\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:56:42Z","timestamp":1760115402000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/24\/4758"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16244758"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16244758","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]}}}