{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T14:11:33Z","timestamp":1775225493040,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,22]],"date-time":"2010-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1269216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper reviews LiDAR ground filtering algorithms used in the process of creating Digital Elevation Models. We discuss critical issues for the development and application of LiDAR ground filtering algorithms, including filtering procedures for different feature types, and criteria for study site selection, accuracy assessment, and algorithm classification. This review highlights three feature types for which current ground filtering algorithms are suboptimal, and which can be improved upon in future studies: surfaces with rough terrain or discontinuous slope, dense forest areas that laser beams cannot penetrate, and regions with low vegetation that is often ignored by ground filters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2030833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,23]],"date-time":"2010-03-23T04:23:22Z","timestamp":1269318202000},"page":"833-860","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":438,"title":["Ground Filtering Algorithms for Airborne LiDAR Data: A Review of Critical Issues"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Xuelian","family":"Meng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Texas State University-San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA"},{"name":"Department of Geography, Texas A&M University, 810 O&M Building, College Station, TX 77843-3147, USA"}]},{"given":"Nate","family":"Currit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Texas State University-San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA"}]},{"given":"Kaiguang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spatial Sciences Lab., Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3147, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2008.09.001","article-title":"A multi-directional ground filtering algorithm for airborne LIDAR","volume":"64","author":"Meng","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.2.217","article-title":"Urban DEM generation from raw LiDAR data: a labeling algorithm and its performance","volume":"71","author":"Shan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"203","article-title":"Filtering of laser altimetry data using a slope adaptive filter","volume":"34-3\/W4","author":"Sithole","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133308089496","article-title":"Airborne LiDAR for DEM generation: some critical issues","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geog."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Baligh, A., Valadan Zoej, M.J., and Mohammadzadeh, A. (, January July). Bare earth extraction from airborne lidar data using different filtering methods. Proceedings of Commission III, ISPRS Congress Beijing 2008, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.75.10.1177","article-title":"Small-footprint laser scanning simulator for system validation, error assessment, and algorithm development","volume":"75","author":"Kukko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"908","article-title":"Wide-area topographic mapping and applications using airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology","volume":"66","author":"Hill","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/0031-868X.00117","article-title":"Digital elevation models by laser scanning","volume":"16","author":"Lohr","year":"1998","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"383","article-title":"Capture and evaluation of airborne laser scanner data","volume":"31","author":"Kilian","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Mandlburger, G., Briese, C., and Pfeifer, N. (,  2007). Progress in LiDAR sensor technology\u2014chance and challenge for DTM generation and data administration. Proceedings of 51st Photogrammetric Week 2007, Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Pfeifer, N., Stadler, P., and Briese, C. (,  2001). Derivation of digital terrain models in the SCOP++ environment. Proceedings of OEEPE Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning and Interferometric SAR for Digital Elevation Models, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"935","article-title":"Slope based filtering of Laser altimetry data","volume":"XXXIII","author":"Vosselmann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00005-2","article-title":"Laser scanning\u2014surveying and mapping agencies are using a new technique for the derivation of digital terrain models","volume":"54","author":"Petzold","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1093\/jof\/103.6.286","article-title":"Light detection and ranging (LIDAR): an emerging tool for multiple resource inventory","volume":"103","author":"Reutebuch","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Forest."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00014-3","article-title":"A comparison between photogrammetry and laser scanning","volume":"54","author":"Baltsavias","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.2004.00173.x","article-title":"LiDAR data filtering and DTM interpolation within GRASS","volume":"8","author":"Brovelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00011-8","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning\u2014an introduction and overview","volume":"54","author":"Wehr","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2004.832229","article-title":"Identification and analysis of airborne laser swath mapping data in a novel feature space","volume":"1","author":"Luzum","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1202","article-title":"Innovation in LiDAR processing technology","volume":"70","author":"Romano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1209","article-title":"Laser altimetry\u2014from science to commercial lidar mapping","volume":"67","author":"Flood","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2006.06.002","article-title":"A multi-resolution approach for filtering LiDAR altimetry data","volume":"61","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.6.699","article-title":"Photogrammetric and lidar Data Registration Using Linear Features","volume":"71","author":"Habib","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.76.1.49","article-title":"Factors influencing pulse width of small footprint, full waveform airborne laser scanning data","volume":"76","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.75.4.437","article-title":"Morphology-based building detection from airborne LIDAR data","volume":"75","author":"Meng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(98)00009-4","article-title":"Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with aerial laser scanner data","volume":"53","author":"Kraus","year":"1998","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"613","article-title":"CLICK: the new USGS center for LiDAR information coordination and knowledge","volume":"72","author":"Stoker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1307","article-title":"Creation of Digital Terrain Models using an adaptive Lidar vegetation point removal process","volume":"68","author":"Raber","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.7.817","article-title":"An evaluation of LiDAR-derived elevation and terrain slope in leaf-off condition","volume":"71","author":"Hodgson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.06.011","article-title":"A voxel-based lidar method for estimating crown base height for deciduous and pine Trees","volume":"112","author":"Popescu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.03.006","article-title":"Lidar-based mapping of leaf area index and its comparison with satellite GLOBCARBON LAI Products","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.09.009","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing of forest biomass: a scale-invariant approach using airborne lasers","volume":"112","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Kraus, K., and Otepka, J. (,  2005). DTM modelling and visualization\u2014the SCOP approach. Proceedings of Photogrammetric Week 05, Heidelberg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Alharthy, A., and Bethel, J. (,  2002). Heuristic filtering and 3d feature extraction from lidar data. Proceedings of PCV02, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.7.847","article-title":"DTM generation and building detection from Lidar data","volume":"71","author":"Ma","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-2716(91)90043-U","article-title":"Automatic derivation of skeleton lines from digitized contours","volume":"46","author":"Aumann","year":"1991","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"378","article-title":"Pseudo-grid based building extraction using airborne LIDAR data","volume":"35","author":"Cho","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2007.01.001","article-title":"Data fusion of high-resolution satellite imagery and LiDAR data for automatic building extraction","volume":"62","author":"Sohn","year":"2007","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.3.313","article-title":"Comparison of three algorithms for filtering airborne LiDAR data","volume":"71","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.810682","article-title":"A progressive morphological filter for removing nonground measurements from airborne LiDAR data","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00008-8","article-title":"Processing of laser scanner data-algorithms and applications","volume":"54","author":"Axelsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"165","article-title":"A filtering method of airborne laser scanner data for complex terrain","volume":"XXXIV","author":"Masaharu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"211","article-title":"Terrain modelling and analysis using laser scanner data","volume":"XXXIV","author":"Elmqvist","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Ach. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Okagawa, M. (,  2001). Algorithm of multiple filter to extract DSM from LiDAR data. Proceedings of 2001 ESRI International User Conference, ESRI, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Passini, R., and Jacobsen, K. (, January April). Filtering of digital elevation models. Proceedings of the ASPRS 2002 Annual Convention, [CD-ROM], Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Arefi, H., Engels, J., Hahn, M., and Mayer, H. (, January June). Automatic DTM generation from laser-scanning data in residential hilly area. Proceedings of ISPRS Joint Workshop: \u201cVisualization and Exploration of Geospatial Data\u201d, Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.10.013","article-title":"Repetitive interpolation: a robust algorithm for DTM generation from aerial laser scanner data in forested terrain","volume":"108","author":"Kobler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2010490","article-title":"Separation of Ground and Low Vegetation Signatures in LiDAR Measurements of Salt-Marsh Environments","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5163","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500218630","article-title":"Use of LiDAR elevation data to construct a high-resolution digital terrain model for an estuarine marsh area","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810600607337","article-title":"Deriving ground surface digital elevation models from LiDAR data with geostatistics","volume":"20","author":"Lloyd","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, S., Shi, W., Liu, J., and Zhu, G. (2007). Facet-based airborne light detection and ranging data filtering method. Opt. Eng., 46.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2747232"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Nardinocchi, C., Forlani, G., and Zingaretti, P. (, January October). Classification and filtering of laser data. Proceedings of the ISPRS working group III\/3 workshop \u201c3-D Reconstruction from Airborne Laser Scanner and InSAR Data\u201d, Dresden, Germany."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Wack, R., and Wimmer, A. (, January September). Digital Terrain Models from Airborne Laser scanner Data\u2014a Grid Based Approach. Proceedings of ISPRS Commission III, Symposium 2002, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Hyyppa, J., Pyysalo, U., Hyyppa, H., and Samberg, A. (, January June). Elevation accuracy of laser scanning-derived digital terrain and target models in forest environment. Proceedings of EARSeL-SIG-Workshop LIDAR, Dresden, Germany."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Elmqvist, M. (,  2002). Ground surface estimation from airborne laser scanner data using active shape models. Proceedings of ISPRS Commission III Symposium, Photogrammetric and Computer Vision, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2519","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110097998","article-title":"Deriving DSMs from LiDAR data with kriging","volume":"23","author":"Lloyd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-022","article-title":"Accuracy of a high-resolution lidar terrain model under a conifer forest canopy","volume":"29","author":"Reutebuch","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Meng, X. (, January September). A slope- and elevation-based filter to remove non-ground measurements from airborne LIDAR data. Proceedings of ISPRS WG III\/3, III\/4, V\/3 Workshop \u201cLaser scanning 2005\u201d, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"219","article-title":"Some algorithms for virtual deforestation (VDF) of LiDAR topographic survey data","volume":"XXXIV","author":"Haugerud","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"110","article-title":"DEM Generation from Laser Scanner Data Using Adaptive TIN Models","volume":"XXXIII","author":"Axelsson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2004.05.004","article-title":"Experimental comparison of filter algorithms for bare earth extraction from airborne laser scanning point clouds","volume":"59","author":"Sithole","year":"2004","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.2.175","article-title":"Filtering airborne laser scanning data with morphological methods","volume":"73","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves-Seco, L., Miranda, D., Crecente, F., and Farto, J. (,  2006). Digital terrain model generation using airborne LiDAR in a forested area Galicia, Spain. Proceedings of 7th International symposium on spatial accuracy assessment in natural resources and environmental sciences, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Arefi, H., and Hahn, M. (, January September). A morphological reconstruction algorithm for separating off-terrain points from terrain points in laser scanning data. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Briese, C., and Pfeifer, N. (,  2001). Airborne laser scanning and derivation of digital terrain models. Proceedings of Fifth Conference on Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Hofton, M.A. Advanced DTM generation from LiDAR data. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop on Land Surface Mapping and Characterization Using Laser Altimetry."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Fritsch, D., and Spiller, R. (1999). Photogrammetric Week\u201999, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.890412","article-title":"A multiscale curvature algorithm for classifying discrete return LiDAR in forested environments","volume":"45","author":"Evans","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"79","article-title":"Segmentation based robust interpolation\u2013a new approach to laser filtering","volume":"36","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2005.10.005","article-title":"Segmentation of airborne laser scanning data using a slope adaptive neighborhood","volume":"60","author":"Filin","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Jacobsen, K., and Lohmann, P. (, January October). Segmented filtering of laser scanner DSMs. Proceedings of the ISPRS Working Group III\/3 workshop \u20183-D Reconstruction From Airborne Laserscanner and InSAR Data\u2019, Dresden, Germany."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Ali, T.A. (,  2004). On the selection of an interpolationmethod for creating a terrain model (TM) from LIDAR data. Proceedings of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM) Conference 2004, Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2005.12.010","article-title":"Accuracy of interpolation techniques for the derivation of digital elevation models in relation to landform types and data density","volume":"77","author":"Chaplot","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3889","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500181671","article-title":"LiDAR density and linear interpolator effects on elevation estimates","volume":"26","author":"Anderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1109\/36.992791","article-title":"Interpolation of digital elevation models using AMLE and related methods","volume":"40","author":"Almansa","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810500286943","article-title":"A hybrid interpolation method for the refinement of a regular grid digital elevation model","volume":"20","author":"Shi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Schickler, W., and Thorpe, A. (, January April). Surface estimation based on LiDAR. Proceedings of ASPRS Annual Conference, St. Louis, MO, USA."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.3.331","article-title":"Accuracy of airborne Lidar-derived elevation: empirical assessment and error budget","volume":"70","author":"Hodgson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Jenkins, L.G. (,  2006). Key drivers in determining LiDAR sensor selection. Proceedings of ISPRS Commission VII Mid-Symposium \u2018Remote Sensing: from Pixels to Processes\u2019, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heiken, G., Fakundiny, R., and Sutter, J. (2003). Earth Science in the Cities: A Reader, American Geophysical Union.","DOI":"10.1029\/056SP"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"196","article-title":"A robust method for filtering non-ground measurements from airborne LiDAR data","volume":"XXXV","author":"Crosilla","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"248","article-title":"Segmentation of point clouds using smoothness constraint","volume":"36","author":"Rabbania","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"119","article-title":"Surface clustering from airborne laser scanning data","volume":"XXXIV","author":"Filin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"540","article-title":"Approaches to the filtering of laser scanner data","volume":"33","author":"Lohmann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.813849","article-title":"DTM extraction of LiDAR returns via adaptive processing","volume":"41","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"31","article-title":"Interpolation of high quality ground models from laser scanner data in forested areas","volume":"32","author":"Pfeifer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"227","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning: clustering in raw data","volume":"XXXIV","author":"Roggero","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Sithole, G., and Vosselman, G. (, January September). Filtering of airborne laser scanner data based on segmented point clouds. Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning 2005, Enschede, the Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Harlick, R.M., and Shapiro, L.G. (1992). Computer and Robot Vision, Addison-Wesley."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1117\/12.216942","article-title":"Extracting objects from digital terrain models","volume":"2572","author":"Eckstein","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00133570","article-title":"Snakes: active contour models","volume":"1","author":"Kass","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vision"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1109\/34.244675","article-title":"Finite element methods for active contour models and balloons for 2D and 3D images","volume":"15","author":"Cohen","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Patt. Anal. Mach. Int."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1440410","article-title":"Machine contouring using minimum curvature","volume":"39","author":"Briggs","year":"1974","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Jain, R., Kasturi, R., and Schunck, B. G. (1995). Machine Vision, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Sithole, G. (, January September). Filtering strategy: working towards reliability. Proceedings of PCV 02, ISPRS Commission III, Symposium 2002, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Sohn, G., and Dowman, I. (, January September). Terrain surface reconstruction by the use of tetrahedron model with the MDL Criterion. Proceedings of PCV 02, ISPRS Commission III, Symposium 2002, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Hu, Y. Automated Extraction of Digital Terrain Models, Roads and Buildings Using Airborne Lidar Data. Available online: http:\/\/www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca\/links\/GradTheses.html."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9837(199706)22:6<563::AID-ESP713>3.0.CO;2-3","article-title":"Effects of interpolation errors on the analysis of DEMs","volume":"22","author":"Desmet","year":"1997","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Processes Landf."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Crombaghs, M., Elberink, S.O., Br\u00fcgelmann, R., and de Min, E. (, January September). Assessing Height Precision of Laser Altimetry DEMs. Proceedings of PCV 02, ISPRS Commission III, Symposium 2002, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.2005.00636.x","article-title":"Quantifying interpolation errors in urban airborne laser scanning models","volume":"37","author":"Smith","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geogr. Analysis"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.2004.00169.x","article-title":"The effect of DEM raster resolution on first order, second order and compound terrain derivatives","volume":"8","author":"Kienzle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810410001701987","article-title":"The choice of window size in approximating topographic surfaces from digital elevation models","volume":"18","author":"Albani","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2005.06.004","article-title":"Horizontal resolution and data density effects on remotely sensed LIDAR- based DEM","volume":"132","author":"Anderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Liu, X., Zhang, Z., Peterson, J., and Chandra, S. (,  2007). The effect of LiDAR data density on DEM accuracy. Proceedings of International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (MODSIM07), Christchurch, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.7.793","article-title":"Impact of LiDAR nominal post-spacing on DEM accuracy and flood zone delineation","volume":"73","author":"Raber","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(98)00013-6","article-title":"Errors and accuracy estimates of laser data acquired by various laser scanning systems for topographic applications","volume":"53","author":"Huising","year":"1998","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"16","article-title":"Factors affecting laser-derived object-oriented forest height growth estimation","volume":"18","author":"Yu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Fin."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1093\/jof\/98.6.44","article-title":"LiDAR remote sensing for forestry","volume":"98","author":"Dubayah","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Forest."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Pfeifer, N., Gorte, B., and Oude Elberink, S. (,  2004). Influences of vegetation on laser altimetry\u2013analysis and correction approaches. ISPRS Working Group VIII\/2 \u2018Laser-Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessment\u2019, Freiburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.8.961","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of LiDAR saltmarsh topographic data using RTK GPS","volume":"72","author":"Torres","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/2\/3\/833\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:01:50Z","timestamp":1760220110000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/2\/3\/833"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,22]]},"references-count":109,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs2030833"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs2030833","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,22]]}}}