{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T11:50:57Z","timestamp":1770292257371,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,4]],"date-time":"2011-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1299196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Roughness is an important input parameter for modeling of natural hazards such as floods, rock falls and avalanches, where it is basically assumed that flow velocities decrease with increasing roughness. Seeing roughness as a multi-scale level concept (i.e., ranging from fine-scale soil characteristics to description of understory and lower tree layer) various roughness raster products were derived from the original full-waveform airborne laser scanning (FWF-ALS) point cloud using two different types of roughness parameters, the surface roughness (SR) and the terrain roughness (TR). For the calculation of the SR, ALS terrain points within a defined height range to the terrain surface are considered. For the parameterization of the SR, two approaches are investigated. In the first approach, a geometric description by calculating the standard deviation of plane fitting residuals of terrain points is used. In the second one, the potential of the derived echo widths are analyzed for the parameterization of SR. The echo width is an indicator for roughness and the slope of the target. To achieve a comparable spatial resolution of both SR layers, the calculation of the standard deviation of detrended terrain points requires a higher terrain point density than the SR parameterization using the echo widths. The TR describes objects (i.e., point clusters) close but explicitly above the terrain surface, with 20 cm defined as threshold height value for delineation of the surface layer (i.e., forest floor layer). Two different empirically defined vegetation layers below the canopy layer were analyzed (TR I: 0.2 m to 1.0 m; TR II: 0.2 m to 3.0 m). A 1 m output grid cell size was chosen for all roughness parameters in order to provide consistency for further integration of high-resolution optical imagery. The derived roughness parameters were then jointly classified, together with a normalized Digital Surface Model (nDSM) showing the height of objects (i.e., trees) above ground. The presented approach enables the classification of forested areas in patches of different vegetation structure (e.g., varying soil roughness, understory, density of natural cover). For validation purposes in situ reference data were collected and cross-checked with the classification results, positively confirming the general feasibility of the proposed vertical concept of integrated roughness mapping on various vertical levels. Results can provide valuable input for forest mapping and monitoring, in particular with regard to natural hazard modeling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3030503","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,6]],"date-time":"2011-03-06T18:54:40Z","timestamp":1299437680000},"page":"503-523","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Roughness Mapping on Various Vertical Scales Based on Full-Waveform Airborne Laser Scanning Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Markus","family":"Hollaus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, Vienna University of Technology, Gu\u00dfhausstra\u00dfe 27-29, A-1040 Vienna, Austria"}]},{"given":"Christoph","family":"Aubrecht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Donau-City-Str. 1, A-1220 Vienna, Austria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5849-1461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernhard","family":"H\u00f6fle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Heidelberg, Berliner Str. 48, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany"}]},{"given":"Klaus","family":"Steinnocher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Donau-City-Str. 1, A-1220 Vienna, Austria"}]},{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, Vienna University of Technology, Gu\u00dfhausstra\u00dfe 27-29, A-1040 Vienna, Austria"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-232X(99)00027-0","article-title":"Hazard mapping for ice and combined snow\/ice avalanches\u2014Two case studies from the Swiss and Italian Alps","volume":"30","author":"Margreth","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cold Regions Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810410001703804","article-title":"Effect of support size on the accuracy of a distributed rockfall model","volume":"18","author":"Dorren","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1051\/agro:2000114","article-title":"Soil roughness and overland flow","volume":"20","author":"Govers","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agronomie"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2004.09.008","article-title":"Runoff and sediment losses from rough and smooth soil surfaces in a laboratory experiment","volume":"59","author":"Nearing","year":"2005","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Jutzi, B., and Stilla, U. (2005, January 14\u201316). Waveform Processing of Laser Pulses for Reconstruction of Surfaces in Urban Areas. Proceedings of 3th International Symposium: Remote Sensing and Data Fusion over Urban Areas, URBAN 2005, Tempe, AZ, USA. Part 8 W27."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2004.09.018","article-title":"STARTER: A statistical GIS-based model for the prediction of snow avalanche susceptibility using terrain features\u2014Application to Alta Val Badia, Italian Dolomites","volume":"66","author":"Ghinoi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.3189\/172756401781819391","article-title":"Characteristics of terrain, snow supply and forest cover for avalanche initiation caused by logging","volume":"32","author":"McClung","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Margreth, S. (2007). Lawinenverbau im Anbruchgebiet, Bundesamt f\u00fcr Umwelt BAFU, WSL Eidgen\u00f6ssisches Institut f\u00fcr Schnee- und Lawinenforschung SLF."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.09.035","article-title":"Snow forces on forest plants due to creep and glide","volume":"257","author":"Fromm","year":"2009","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-555X(94)00059-Z","article-title":"Effect of surface roughness on runoff and erosion in a Mediterranean ecosystem: the role of fire","volume":"11","author":"Lavee","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.12.022","article-title":"Effect of variable roughness on runoff","volume":"382","author":"Rai","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"83","article-title":"Provisorische Gel\u00e4ndeanleitung zur Absch\u00e4tzung des Oberfl\u00e4chenabflussbeiwertes auf alpinen Boden-\/Vegetationseinheiten bei konvektiven Starkregen (Version 1.0)","volume":"3","author":"Markart","year":"2004","journal-title":"BFW-Dokumentation."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2007.04.029","article-title":"Surface roughness and geological mapping at sub-hectometer scale from the High Resolution Stereo Camera onboard Mars Express","volume":"191","author":"Cord","year":"2007","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2005.08.005","article-title":"Soil surface roughness measurement\u2014Methods, applicability, and surface representation","volume":"64","author":"Jester","year":"2005","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Smith, M.J., Asal, F.F.F., and Priestnall, G. (2004, January 12\u201323). The Use of Photogrammetry and LIDAR for Landscape Roughness Estimation in Hydrodynamic Studies. Proceedings of International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing XXth Congress, Istanbul, Turkey. WG III\/8."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.07.012","article-title":"Floodplain roughness parameterization using airborne laser scanning and spectral remote sensing","volume":"112","author":"Straatsma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Aubrecht, C., H\u00f6fle, B., Hollaus, M., K\u00f6stl, M., Steinnocher, K., and Wagner, W. (2010, January 5\u20137). Vertical Roughness Mapping\u2014ALS Based Classification of the Vertical Vegetation Structure in Forested Areas. Proceedings of ISPRS TC VII Symposium: 100 Years ISPRS, Vienna, Austria. Part 7B."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hollaus, M., and H\u00f6fle, B. (2010, January 5\u20137). Terrain Roughness Parameters from Full-Waveform Airborne LiDAR Data. Proceedings of ISPRS TC VII Symposium: 100 Years ISPRS, Vienna, Austria. Part 7B."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Wagner, W., Ullrich, A., Melzer, T., Briese, C., and Kraus, K. (2004, January 12\u201323). From Single-Pulse to Full-Waveform Airborne Laser Scanners: Potential and Practical Challenges. Proceedings of International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing XXth Congress, Istanbul, Turkey. Part B\/3."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Hollaus, M., M\u00fccke, W., H\u00f6fle, B., Dorigo, W., Pfeifer, N., Wagner, W., Bauerhansl, C., and Regner, B. (2009, January 14\u201316). Tree Species Classification Based on Full-Waveform Airborne Laser Scanning Data. Proceedings of 9th International Silvilaser Conference, College Station, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Tuwien. Available online: http:\/\/www.inpho.de."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Hollaus, M., Mandlburger, G., Pfeifer, N., and M\u00fccke, W. (2010, January 1\u20133). Land Cover Dependent Derivation of Digital Surface Models from Airborne Laser Scanning Data. Proceedings of ISPRS Technical Commission III Symposium: Photogrammetric Computer Vision and Image Analysis, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"OPALS\u2014Orientation and Processing of Airborne Laser Scanning Data. Available online: http:\/\/www.ipf.tuwien.ac.at\/opals\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kraus, K. (2007). Photogrammetry: Geometry from Images and Laser Scans, Walter de Gruyter. [2nd].","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110892871"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2007.05.008","article-title":"Correction of laser scanning intensity data: Data and model-driven approaches","volume":"62","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2007","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"H\u00f6fle, B. (2007). Detection and Utilization of the Information Potential of Airborne Laser Scanning Point Cloud and Intensity Data by Developing a Management and Analysis System. [Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Geo- and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Innsbruck]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veulliet, E., St\u00f6tter, J., and Weck-Hannemann, H. (2009). Sustainable Natural Hazard Management in Alpine Environments, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-03229-5"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2005.12.001","article-title":"Gaussian decomposition and calibration of a novel small-footprint full-waveform digitising airborne laser scanner","volume":"60","author":"Wagner","year":"2006","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2007.06.013","article-title":"Archaeological prospection of forested areas using full-waveform airborne laser scanning","volume":"35","author":"Doneus","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.76.1.49","article-title":"Factors influencing pulse width of small footprint, full waveform airborne laser scanning data","volume":"76","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"M\u00fccke, W. (2008). Analysis of Full-Waveform Airborne Laser Scanning Data for the Improvement of DTM Generation. [M.Sc. Thesis, Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Vienna University of Technology]."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/3\/3\/503\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:55:26Z","timestamp":1760219726000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/3\/3\/503"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,4]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs3030503"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs3030503","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,4]]}}}