{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T07:21:48Z","timestamp":1761895308777,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,7,8]],"date-time":"2011-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1310083200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In Europe, heating of houses and commercial areas is one of the major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. When considering the drastic impact of an increasing emission of greenhouse gases as well as the finiteness of fossil resources, the usage of efficient and renewable energy generation technologies has to be increased. In this context, small-scale heating networks are an important technical component, which enable the efficient and sustainable usage of various heat generation technologies. This paper investigates how the potential of district heating for different settlement structures can be assessed. In particular, we analyze in which way remote sensing and GIS data can assist the planning of optimized heat allocation systems. In order to identify the best suited locations, a spatial model is defined to assess the potential for small district heating networks. Within the spatial model, the local heat demand and the economic costs of the necessary heat allocation infrastructure are compared. Therefore, a first and major step is the detailed characterization of the settlement structure by means of remote sensing data. The method is developed on the basis of a test area in the town of Oberhaching in the South of Germany. The results are validated through detailed in situ data sets and demonstrate that the model facilitates both the calculation of the required input parameters and an accurate assessment of the district heating potential. The described method can be transferred to other investigation areas with a larger spatial extent. The study underlines the range of applications for remote sensing-based analyses with respect to energy-related planning issues.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3071447","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,7,8]],"date-time":"2011-07-08T16:49:06Z","timestamp":1310143746000},"page":"1447-1471","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Remote Sensing-Based Characterization of Settlement Structures for Assessing Local Potential of District Heat"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Gei\u00df","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"German Remote Sensing Data Center, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 82234 We\u00dfling-Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4360-9126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hannes","family":"Taubenb\u00f6ck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Remote Sensing Data Center, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 82234 We\u00dfling-Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Wurm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Remote Sensing Data Center, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 82234 We\u00dfling-Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing, Institute of Geography, Julius-Maximilians University W\u00fcrzburg, 97074 W\u00fcrzburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Esch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Remote Sensing Data Center, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 82234 We\u00dfling-Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Nast","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 70569 Stuttgart, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christoph","family":"Schillings","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 70569 Stuttgart, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1860-8458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Blaschke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Z_GIS Centre for Geoinformatics and Department for Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunner Street 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"B\u00f6hnisch, H., Erbas, K., Nast, M., and Schreitm\u00fcller, K. (2001, January 20\u201321). Nahw\u00e4rme im Geb\u00e4udebestand\u2014Anlagenaspekte und Umsetzung. Integration Erneuerbarer Energien in Versorgungsstrukturen, Forschungsverbund Sonnenenergie, Potsdam, Germany."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Nitsch, J. (2008). Weiterentwicklung der \u201cAusbaustrategie erneuerbare Energie\u201d vor dem Hintergrund der aktuellen Klimaschutzziele Deutschlands und Europas, Untersuchung im Auftrag des BMU."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weng, Q., and Quattrochi, D.A. (2006). Urban Remote Sensing, CRC Press\/Taylor and Francis.","DOI":"10.1201\/b15917"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Weng, Q. (2010). Remote Sensing and GIS Integration: Theories, Methods, and Applications, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Taubenb\u00f6ck, H., and Dech, S. (2010). Fernerkundung im urbanen Raum, WBG."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500486732","article-title":"The potential and challenge of remote sensing-based biomass estimation","volume":"7","author":"Lu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spacepol.2003.11.003","article-title":"The benefits of remote sensing for energy policy","volume":"20","author":"Sen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Space Policy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0038-092X(00)00157-2","article-title":"The European solar radiation atlas: A valuable digital tool","volume":"71","author":"Page","year":"2001","journal-title":"Solar Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"106","article-title":"Distributed parameter modeling of urban residential energy demand","volume":"45","author":"Clayton","year":"1979","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1995)034<1133:ACSFWF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Automated classification scheme for wind fields","volume":"34","author":"Weber","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2003)042<0083:CSSOOW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Can satellite sampling of offshore wind speeds realistically represent wind speed distributions","volume":"42","author":"Barthelmie","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Rajabifard, A., Crompvoets, J., Kalantari, M., and Kok, B. (2010). Spatially Enabling Society, Leuven University Press."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"993","article-title":"The integration of geographic data with remotely sensed imagery to improve classification in an urban area","volume":"61","author":"Harris","year":"1995","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1006\/jema.2001.0509","article-title":"Land use change analysis in the Zhujiang Delta of China using satellite remote sensing, GIS and stochastic modelling","volume":"64","author":"Weng","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1002\/er.1518","article-title":"A new thinking for renewable energy model: Remote sensing-based renewable energy model","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2010.09.049","article-title":"Methods and tools to evaluate the availability of renewable energy sources","volume":"15","author":"Biberacher","year":"2011","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Roth, U., Ginsburg, T., Ledergerber, E., Martin, W., Seunig, G., Kasel, H., and Deucher, A. (1977). Schriftenreihe, \u201eRaumordnung\u201c des Bundesministers f\u00fcr Raumordnung, Bauwesen und St\u00e4dtebau, St\u00e4dtebauliche Forschung 06.011, Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Raumordnung, Bauwesen und St\u00e4dtebau."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Roth, U., H\u00e4ubli, F., and Albrecht, L. (1980). Schriftenreihe \u201eRaumordnung\u201c des Bundesministers f\u00fcr Raumordnung, Bauwesen und St\u00e4dtebau, Bauwesen und St\u00e4dtebau 06.044, Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Raumordnung, Bauwesen und St\u00e4dtebau."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Winkens, H.P. (1985). \u00d6rtliche und regionale Versorgungskonzepte."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Lutsch, W., and Witterhold, F.G. (2005). Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen der AGFW-Studie Pluralistische W\u00e4rmeversorgung, AGFW."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Neuffer, H., and Witterhold, F.G. (2001). Strategien und Technologien einer pluralistischen Fern- und Nahw\u00e4rmeversorgung in einem liberalisiertem Energiemarkt unter besonderer Ber\u00fccksichtigung der Kraft-W\u00e4rme-Kopplung und erneuerbarer Technologien. AGFW-Bericht zur pluralistischen W\u00e4rmeversorgung, AGFW. AGFW-Hauptstudie\u2013Erster Bearbeitungsband, Band 2."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Lutsch, W., Neuffer, H., and Witterhold, F.G. (2004). Strategien und Technologien einer pluralistischen Fern- und Nahw\u00e4rmeversorgung in einem liberalisierten Energiemarkt unter besonderer Ber\u00fccksichtigung der Kraft-W\u00e4rme-Kopplung und regenerativer Energien, AGFW-Hauptstudie-Erster Bearbeitungsschritt, Band 1."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Neidhart, H., and Brenner, C. (2003, January 8\u20139). Automatic Calculation of Building Volumes for an Area-Wide Determination of Heat Requirements. Proceedings of ISPRS Commission IV Joint Workshop \u2018Challenges in Geospatial Analysis, Integration and Visualization II\u2019, Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Lutsch, W., Neuffer, H., and Witterhold, F.G. (2004). Strategien und Technologien einer pluralistischen Fern- und Nahw\u00e4rmeversorgung in einem liberalisierten Energiemarkt unter besonderer Ber\u00fccksichtigung der Kraft-W\u00e4rme-Kopplung und regenerativer Energien, AGFW-Hauptstudie-Erster Bearbeitungsschritt, Band 1."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Neidhart, H., and Sester, M. (2006, January 3\u20135). Creating a Digital Thermal Map Using Laser Scanning and GIS. Proceedings of the District Heat and Cooling Symposium, Hannover, Germany."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1080\/09613210903159833","article-title":"Analyzing building stock using topographic maps and GIS","volume":"37","author":"Meinel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Build. Res. Inf."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Meinel, G., Hecht, R., Herold, H., and Schiller, G. (2008). Automatische Ableitung von stadtstrukturellen Grundlagendaten und Integration in einem Geographischen Informationssystem, Forschungen\/BBR."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Strobl, J., Blaschke, T., and Griesebner, G. (2008). Angewandte Geoinformatik 2008. Beitr\u00e4ge zum 20. AGIT-Symposium Salzburg, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Fischedick, M., Sch\u00fcwer, D., Venjakob, J., Merten, F., Mitze, D., Nast, M., Schillings, C., Krewitt, W., Bohnensch\u00e4fer, W., and Lindner, K. (2007). Potenziale von Nah- und Fernw\u00e4rmenetzen f\u00fcr den Klimaschutz bis zum Jahr 2020, Sonstiger Bericht; UBA-FB 001074\/1."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Schillings, C., Nast, M., Fischedick, M., and Venjakob, J. (2007). Energiewirtschaftliche Tagesfragen, Etv GmbH."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Blesl, M. (2002). R\u00e4umlich hoch aufgel\u00f6ste Modellierung leitungsgebundener Energieversorgung zur Deckung des Niedertemperaturw\u00e4rmebedarfs. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e4t Stuttgart]."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Nast, M. (2004, January 15\u201316). Chancen und Perspektiven der Nahw\u00e4rme im zuk\u00fcnftigen Energiemarkt. Fachtagung \u201eNahw\u00e4rme 2004\u201c, Osnabr\u00fcck, Germany."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ramm, F., and Tropf, J. (2008). OpenStreetMap\u2013die freie Weltkarte Nutzen und Mitgestalten, Lehmanns Media."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Neis, P., and Zipf, A. (2008). OpenStreetMap\u2013Grundlagen und Potentiale der freien Wiki-Weltkarte, Harzer Verlag. GIS Report 2008\/2009."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Vermessungsverwaltungen der L\u00e4nder der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (AdV). ATKIS\u2013Objektartenkatalog. Available online: http:\/\/www.atkis.de\/dstinfo\/dstinfo2.dst_gliederung."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Plan-G, Planungsgesellschaft f\u00fcr Energie- und Anlagentechnik mbH."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurz, F. (2009). DGPF Tagungsband, 18. Deutsche Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Photogrammetrie, Fernerkundung und Geoinformation Jahrestagung.","DOI":"10.1127\/1432-8364\/2009\/0035"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Kurz, F., Rosenbaum, D., Thomas, U., Leitloff, J., Palubinskas, G., Zeller, K., and Reinartz, P. (2009, January 2\u20135). Near Real Time Airborne Monitoring Systems for Disaster and Traffic Applications. Proceedings of ISPRS Hannover Workshop, Hannover, Germany."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kurz, F., Ebner, V., Rosenbaum, D., Thomas, U., and Reinartz, P. (2008, January 3\u201311). Near Real Time Processing of DSM from Airborne Digital Camera System for Disaster Monitoring. Proceedings of XXI Congress of the ISPRS 2008, Commission IV, Beijing, China. Part B4."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"GeoEye Imagery sources\u2013Ikonos. Available online: http:\/\/www.geoeye.com\/CorpSite\/products-and-services\/imagery-sources\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richards, J.A., and Jia, X. (2006). Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis, Springer-Verlag. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-29711-1"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Irons, J.R. Landsat-The Multispectral Scanner System, Available online: http:\/\/landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov\/about\/mss.html."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Irons, J.R. Landsat-The Thematic Mapper, Available online: http:\/\/landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov\/about\/tm.html."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Irons, J.R. Landsat-The Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus, Available online: http:\/\/landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov\/about\/etm+.html."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Fritz, T., Mittermayer, J., Sch\u00e4ttler, B., Balzer, W., Buckreu\u00df, S., and Werninghaus, R. (2007). TerraSAR-X Ground Segment\u2014Level 1b Product Format Specification, Available online: http:\/\/sss.terrasar-x.dlr.de\/."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"286","article-title":"Terra Bavaria\u201c-Amtliche Geodaten in digitaler Form f\u00fcr die Landwirtschaft \u00fcber das Internet verf\u00fcgbar","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Birkner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Referate der 21. GIL-Jahrestagung in Freising-Weihenstephan"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Geoinformatik Service\u2013Uni-Rostock Automatisierte Liegenschaftskarte. Available online: http:\/\/www.geoinformatik.uni-rostock.de\/einzel.asp?ID=59."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Lutsch, W., Neuffer, H., and Witterhold, F.G. (2004). Strategien und Technologien einer pluralistischen Fern- und Nahw\u00e4rmeversorgung in einem liberalisierten Energiemarkt unter besonderer Ber\u00fccksichtigung der Kraft-W\u00e4rme-Kopplung und regenerativer Energien, AGFW-Hauptstudie-Erster Bearbeitungsschritt, Band 1."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Genske, D., J\u00f6decke, T., Ruff, A., and Porsche, L. (2009). Nutzung st\u00e4dtischer Freifl\u00e4chen f\u00fcr erneuerbare Energien, Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung (BBSR) im Bundesamt f\u00fcr Bauwesen und Raumordnung (BBR), Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung (BMVBS)."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rumor, M., Coors, V., Fendel, E.M., and Zlatanova, S. (2007). Urban and Regional Data Management, Taylor & Francis Group.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203931042"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1080\/19479832.2010.543934","article-title":"Object-based image information fusion using multisensor earth observation data over urban areas","volume":"2","author":"Wurm","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Image Data Fusion"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2008.919622","article-title":"Improvement of image segmentation accuracy based on multi-scale optimization procedure","volume":"5","author":"Esch","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"111","article-title":"Object based feature extraction using high spatial resolution satellite data of urban areas","volume":"55","author":"Esch","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Spat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marquardt, H. (2004). Energiesparendes Bauen. Von der Europ\u00e4ischen Normung zur Energiesparverordnung, Vieweg & Teubner.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-322-80127-2"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1145\/1656274.1656278","article-title":"The WEKA data mining software: An Update","volume":"11","author":"Hall","year":"2009","journal-title":"SIGKDD Explorations"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Witten, M., and Frank, E. (2000). Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with java Implementations, Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Breuste, J., W\u00e4chter, M., and Bauer, B. Beitrage zur umwelt- und sozialvertr\u00e4glichen Entwicklung von Stadtregionen; CD-ROM, UFZ Umweltforschungszentrum Leipzig, Germany. Available online: http:\/\/www.ufz.de\/index.php?de=4912."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Nast, M. (1997). Studie von Prognos, DLR und Wuppertal Institut im Auftrag des saarl\u00e4ndischen Ministeriums f\u00fcr Umwelt, Energie und Verkehr."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Taubenb\u00f6ck, H. (2008). Vulnerabilit\u00e4tsabsch\u00e4tzung der Megacity Istanbul mit Methoden der Fernerkundung. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of W\u00fcrzburg]."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Abelen, S., Taubenb\u00f6ck, H., and Stilla, U. (2011, January 11\u201313). Multi-scene Urban Area Classification via Decision Tree Adjustment. Proceedings of JURSE Conference 2011: Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Definiens (2009). Definiens eCognition Developer 8, Definiens. Reference Book."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"STJB (1991). Statistisches Jahrbuch f\u00fcr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, STJB. 1998, 2004."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Diefenbach, N., and Enseling, A. (2007). Potentiale zur Reduzierung der CO2-Emissionen bei der W\u00e4rmeversorgung von Geb\u00e4uden in Hessen bis 2012; Studie im Rahmen von INKLIM 2012."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Esch, T., Taubenb\u00f6ck, H., Geiss, C., Nast, M., Schillings, C., Metz, A., Heldens, W., Keil, M., and Dech, S. (2011). Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Bau-, Stadt-, und Raumforschung im Bundesamt f\u00fcr Bauwesen und Raumordnung."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/3\/7\/1447\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:56:42Z","timestamp":1760219802000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/3\/7\/1447"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,7,8]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs3071447"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs3071447","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,7,8]]}}}