{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T04:40:51Z","timestamp":1790397651808,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,3]],"date-time":"2011-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1312329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cloud contamination is one of the severest problems for the time-series analysis of optical remote sensing data such as vegetation phenology detection. Sub-pixel clouds are especially difficult to identify and remove. It is important for accuracy improvement in various terrestrial remote sensing applications to clarify the influence of these residual clouds on spectral vegetation indices. This study investigated the noises caused by residual sub-pixel clouds on several frequently-used spectral indices (NDVI, EVI, EVI2, NDWI, and NDII) by using in situ spectral data and sky photographs at the satellite overpass time. We conducted in situ continuous observation at a Japanese deciduous forest for over a year and compared the MODIS spectral indices with the cloud-free in situ spectral indices. Our results revealed that residual sub-pixel clouds potentially contaminated about 40% of the MODIS data after cloud screening by the state flag of MOD09 product. These residual clouds significantly decreased NDVI values during the leaf growing season. However, such noises did not appear in the other indices. This result was thought to be caused by the different combination of wavelengths among spectral indices. Our results suggested that the noises by residual sub-pixel clouds can be reduced by using EVI, NDWI, or NDII in place of NDVI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3081644","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,3]],"date-time":"2011-08-03T19:30:29Z","timestamp":1312399829000},"page":"1644-1662","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Evaluation of Sub-Pixel Cloud Noises on MODIS Daily Spectral Indices Based on in situ Measurements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Takeshi","family":"Motohka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation Research Center (EORC), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), 2-1-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8505, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenlo Nishida","family":"Nasahara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kazutaka","family":"Murakami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shin","family":"Nagai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 3173-25 Showa-machi, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-0001, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(91)90009-U","article-title":"Potentials and limits of vegetation indices for LAI and APAR assessment","volume":"35","author":"Baret","year":"1991","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1109\/36.649788","article-title":"Estimation of global leaf area index and absorbed PAR using radiative transfer models","volume":"35","author":"Myneni","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.10.006","article-title":"On the relationship of NDVI with leaf area index in a deciduous forest site","volume":"94","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kobayashi, H., Delbart, N., Suzuki, R., and Kushida, K. (2010). A satellite-based method for monitoring seasonality in the overstory leaf area index of Siberian larch forest. J. Geophys. Res., 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JG000939"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1029\/97GB00330","article-title":"A continental phenology model for monitoring vegetation responses to interannual climatic variability","volume":"11","author":"White","year":"1997","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2007.01505.x","article-title":"Spring phenology in boreal Eurasia over a nearly century time scale","volume":"14","author":"Delbart","year":"2008","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.808301","article-title":"The MODIS cloud products: Algorithms and examples from terra","volume":"41","author":"Platnick","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s11284-009-0663-9","article-title":"What makes the satellite-based EVI-GPP relationship unclear in a deciduous broad-leaved forest?","volume":"25","author":"Nagai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(79)90013-0","article-title":"Red and photographic infrared linear combinations for monitoring vegetation","volume":"8","author":"Tucker","year":"1979","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168608948945","article-title":"Characteristics of maximum-value composite images from temporal AVHRR data","volume":"7","author":"Holben","year":"1986","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169208904212","article-title":"The Best Index Slope Extraction (BISE): A method for reducing noise in NDVI time-series","volume":"13","author":"Viovy","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1109\/36.297976","article-title":"Detection and removal of cloud contamination from AVHRR images","volume":"32","author":"Cihlar","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.802519","article-title":"Seasonality extraction by function fitting to time-series of satellite sensor data","volume":"40","author":"Eklundh","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168708948693","article-title":"The effect of subpixel clouds on remote sensing","volume":"8","author":"Kaufman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00096-2","article-title":"Overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the MODIS vegetation indices","volume":"83","author":"Huete","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.06.006","article-title":"Development of a two-band enhanced vegetation index without a blue band","volume":"112","author":"Jiang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00067-3","article-title":"NDWI: A normalized difference water index for remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space","volume":"58","author":"Gao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"77","article-title":"The influence of soil salinity, growth form, and leaf moisture on the spectral reflectance of Spartina alternifolia canopies","volume":"49","author":"Hardisky","year":"1983","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(89)90046-1","article-title":"Detection of changes in leaf water content using near- and middle-infrared reflectances","volume":"30","author":"Hunt","year":"1989","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2007.11.006","article-title":"Utility of spectral vegetation indices for estimation of light conversion efficiency in coniferous forests in Japan","volume":"148","author":"Nakaji","year":"2008","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4343","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802549369","article-title":"Evaluation of optical satellite remote sensing for rice paddy phenology in monsoon Asia using continuous in situ dataset","volume":"30","author":"Motohka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2102369","article-title":"Utility of Green-Red Vegetation Index for remote sensing of vegetation phenology","volume":"2","author":"Motohka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2009.09.010","article-title":"Field experiments to test the use of the normalized difference vegetation index for phenology detection","volume":"150","author":"Nagai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2005.11.005","article-title":"Biometric based estimates of net primary production (NPP) in a cool temperate deciduous forest stand beneath a flux tower","volume":"134","author":"Ohtsuka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-007-9017-z","article-title":"Biometric based carbon flux measurements and net ecosystem production (NEP) in a temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest beneath a flux tower","volume":"10","author":"Ohtsuka","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2008.01800.x","article-title":"On linking multiyear biometric measurements of tree growth with eddy covariance-based net ecosystem production","volume":"15","author":"Ohtsuka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(02)00082-5","article-title":"Gross primary production and net ecosystem production of a cool-temperate deciduous forest estimated by the eddy covariance method","volume":"112","author":"Saigusa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2005.08.016","article-title":"Inter-annual variability of carbon budget components in an AsiaFlux forest site estimated by long-term flux measurements","volume":"134","author":"Saigusa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2008.02.011","article-title":"Vertical integration of leaf area index in a Japanese deciduous broad-leaved forest","volume":"148","author":"Nasahara","year":"2008","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"9","article-title":"Phenological Eyes Network (PEN): A validation network for remote sensing of the terrestrial ecosystems","volume":"21","author":"Nishida","year":"2007","journal-title":"AsiaFlux Newsl."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.08.010","article-title":"Intercalibration of vegetation indices from different sensor systems","volume":"88","author":"Steven","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169308904402","article-title":"Linear mixing and the estimation of ground cover proportions","volume":"14","author":"Settle","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.10.021","article-title":"Vegetation water content mapping using Landsat data derived normalized difference water index for corn and soybeans","volume":"92","author":"Jackson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.002","article-title":"Estimation of leaf water status to monitor the risk of forest fires by using remotely sensed data","volume":"90","author":"Maki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.07.008","article-title":"Vegetation water content estimation for corn and soybeans using spectral indices derived from MODIS near- and short-wave infrared bands","volume":"98","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2099","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(03)90529-1","article-title":"Status of Terra MODIS and Aqua MODIS","volume":"32","author":"Barnes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2008.04.008","article-title":"NASA EOS Terra and Aqua MODIS on-orbit performance","volume":"43","author":"Xiong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.03.011","article-title":"Determination of phenological dates in boreal regions using Normalised Difference Water Index","volume":"97","author":"Delbart","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.11.012","article-title":"Remote sensing of spring phenology in boreal regions: A free of snow-effect method using NOAAAVHRR and SPOT-VGT data (1982\u20132004)","volume":"101","author":"Delbart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.05.003","article-title":"Monitoring spring canopy phenology of a deciduous broadleaf forest using MODIS","volume":"104","author":"Ahl","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.07.008","article-title":"Estimating the effect of gypsy moth defoliation using MODIS","volume":"112","author":"Townsend","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802502632","article-title":"Spectral vegetation indices for estimating shrub cover, green phytomass and leaf turnover in a sedge-shrub tundra","volume":"30","author":"Kushida","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.01.005","article-title":"Land surface phenology of North American mountain environments using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer data","volume":"115","author":"Dunn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.07.016","article-title":"Combining vegetation index and model inversion methods for the extractionof key vegetation biophysical parametersusing Terra and Aqua MODIS reflectance data","volume":"106","author":"Houborg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.01.023","article-title":"Water content estimation from hyperspectral images and MODIS indexes in Southeastern Arizona","volume":"112","author":"Cheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/3\/8\/1644\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:56:57Z","timestamp":1760219817000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/3\/8\/1644"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,3]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs3081644"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs3081644","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,3]]}}}