{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T23:11:26Z","timestamp":1767913886207,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,1]],"date-time":"2013-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1362096000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The objective of this study is to understand the effect of landslides on the drainage network within the area of interest. We thus test the potential of rivers to record the intensity of landslides that affected their courses. The study area is located within the Zagros orogenic belt along the border between Iraq and Iran. We identified 280 landslides through nine QuickBird scenes using visual photo-interpretation. The total landslide area of 40.05 km2 and their distribution follows a NW\u2013SE trend due to the tectonic control of main thrust faults. We observe a strong control of the landslides on the river course. We quantify the relationship between riverbed displacement and mass wasting occurrences using landslide sizes versus river offset and hypsometric integrals. Many valleys and river channels are curved around the toe of landslides, thus producing an offset of the stream which increases with the landslide area. The river offsets were quantified using two geomorphic indices: the river with respect to the basin midline (Fb); and the offset from the main river direction (Fd). Hypsometry and stream offset seem to be correlated. In addition; the analysis of selected river courses may give some information on the sizes of the past landslide events and therefore contribute to the hazard assessment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5031024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,1]],"date-time":"2013-03-01T13:09:27Z","timestamp":1362143367000},"page":"1024-1044","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["River Courses Affected by Landslides and Implications for Hazard Assessment: A High Resolution Remote Sensing Case Study in NE Iraq\u2013W Iran"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4212-228X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arsalan","family":"Othman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Remote Sensing Group, Institute of Geology, TU Freiberg, Bernhard-von-Cotta-Strasse 2, 09596 Freiberg, Germany"},{"name":"Iraq Geological Survey, Al-Andalus Square, Baghdad, Iraq"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Gloaguen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Remote Sensing Group, Institute of Geology, TU Freiberg, Bernhard-von-Cotta-Strasse 2, 09596 Freiberg, Germany"},{"name":"Remote Sensing Group, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg of Resource Technology, Halsbrueckerstr. 34, 09599, Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Blasio, F.V.D. (2011). Introduction to the Physics of Landslides, Springer."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-145X(199901\/02)10:1<49::AID-LDR320>3.0.CO;2-J","article-title":"Landslide erosion risk to New Zealand pastoral steeplands productivity","volume":"10","author":"Luckman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Land Degradation and Development"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2009.09.012","article-title":"Landslides associated with the May 12, 2008 Wenchuan earthquake: Implications for the erosion and tectonic evolution of the Longmen Shan","volume":"491","author":"Ouimet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo776","article-title":"Landslide erosion controlled by hillslope material","volume":"3","author":"Larsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature Geosci"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, R.W., and Chipman, J.W. (2004). Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [5th ed]."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Willians, A.L., Pinches, G.M., Chin, C.Y., McMorran, T.J., and Massey, C.I. (2010). Geologically Active, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-010-0749-2","article-title":"Landslide-dammed lake at Tangjiashan, Sichuan province, China (triggered by the Wenchuan Earthquake, May 12, 2008): Risk assessment, mitigation strategy, and lessons learned","volume":"65","author":"Cui","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1080\/00288330.1986.9516179","article-title":"Limnology of Lake Waikaremoana with special reference to littoral and pelagic primary producers","volume":"20","author":"Law","year":"1986","journal-title":"New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1191\/095968398672490834","article-title":"A late-Holocene and prehistoric record of environmental change from Lake Waikaremoana, New Zealand","volume":"8","author":"Newnham","year":"1988","journal-title":"The Holocene"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.315","article-title":"Lacustrine shore platforms at Lake Waikaremoana, North Island, New Zealand","volume":"27","author":"Allan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Earth Surface Process. Landf"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Highland, L.M., and Bobrowsky, P. (2008). The Landslide Handbook\u2014A Guide to Understanding Landslides, US Geological Survey.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1325"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.2113\/10.2.151","article-title":"Usoi Landslide Dam and Lake Sarez, Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan","volume":"X","author":"Schuster","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Alford, D., and Schuster, R.L. (2000). Usoi Landslide Dam and Lake Sarez, An Assessment of Hazard and Risk in the Pamir Mountain, Tajikistan, UN."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-005-1923-9","article-title":"Usoi Dam wave overtopping and flood routing in the Bartang and Panj Rivers, Tajikistan","volume":"38","author":"Risley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Natural Hazards"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Risley, J., Walder, J., and Denlinger, R. (2006). Usoi Dam Wave Overtopping and Flood Routing in the Bartang and Panj Rivers, Tajikistan, US Geological Survey.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-005-1923-9"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, S.G., Mugnozza, G.S., Strom, A., and Hermanns, R.L. (2006). Landslides from Massive Rock Slope Failure, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-4037-5"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1075","article-title":"Tailings fans and valley-spur cutoffs created by hydraulic mining","volume":"29","author":"James","year":"2004","journal-title":"Earth Surface Process. Landf"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1139\/t02-038","article-title":"The Eureka River landslide and dam, Peace River Lowlands, Alberta","volume":"39","author":"Miller","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Morgan, A.J., Paulen, R.C., Slattery, S.R., and Froese, C.R. (2012). Geological Setting for Large Landslides at the Town of Peace River, Alberta, Alberta Geological Survey. Open File Report 2012-04."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2005.06.037","article-title":"Strug landslide in W Slovenia: A complex multi-process phenomenon","volume":"83","author":"Brilly","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Othus, S.M. (2008). [Comparison of Landslides and Their Related Outburst Flood Deposits, Owyhee River, Southeastern Oregon]. M.Sc. Thesis; Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112099006515","article-title":"A nonlinear model of flow in meandering submarine and subaerial channels","volume":"400","author":"Imran","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fluid Mech"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Goudie, A.S. (2006). Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Routledge Ltd."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-1951(94)90030-2","article-title":"Tectonics of Zagros Oroginic Belt of Iran: New data and interpretations","volume":"229","author":"Alavi","year":"1994","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2475\/ajs.304.1.1","article-title":"Regional stratigraphy of the Zagros Fold\u2014Thrust Belt of Iran and its proforeland evolution","volume":"304","author":"Alavi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Sci"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Jassim, S.Z., and Goff, J.C. (2006). Geology of Iraq, Dolin."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Nezhad, J.E. (1973). The Geological Map of Mahabad Quadrangles, Sheet NI-38-15 (map no. B4), Scale 1:250000, Geological Survey of Iran."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sisakian, V.K. (1998). The Geology of Erbil and Mahabad Quadrangle Sheet NJ-38-14 and NJ-38-15 (GM 5 and 6), Scale 1:250 000, Iraq Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Sissakian, V.K., Ahad, I.D.A., and Qambar, A.S. (2004). Series of Geological Hazards Map of Iraq Sulimanyah Quadrangle, Sheet No. NI-38-3, Scale 1:250 000, Iraq Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Schuster, R.L., and Krizek, R.J. (1978). Special Report 176: Landslides: Analysis and Control, Transportation and Road Research Board, National Academy of Science."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Dikau, R., Brunsden, D., Schrott, L., and Ibsen, M.L. (1996). Landslide Recognition: Identification, Movement and Causes, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2006). Quickbird Imagery Products: Product Guide, DigitalGlobe, Inc.. Version 4.7.1."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Abdulaziz, M.T., Ibraheem, F.A., Sebesta, J., and Hassan, A. (1983). The Lesser Zab River Basin Project, Photo-Engineering Geological and Geomorphological Mapping, Iraq Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Buday, T., and Suk, M. (1978). Report on the Geological Survey in NE Iraq between Halabjaand Qala\u2032adiza, Iraq Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Paver, G.L., Consultant, M.B., and Scholtzh, H.C. (1955). Six Monthly Report July to December 1955, Iraq Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bolton, C.M. (1954). Geological Map Kurdistan Series, Sheet K4, Scale 1\/100000, Rania, Iraq Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2010.06.009","article-title":"Tecdem: A matlab based toolbox for tectonic geomorphology, Part 2: Surface dynamics and basin analysis","volume":"37","author":"Shahzad","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2010.06.008","article-title":"A matlab based toolbox for tectonic geomorphology, Part 1: Drainage network preprocessing and streamprofile analysis","volume":"37","author":"Shahzad","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2008.06.006","article-title":"An arcgis extension to calculate hypsometric curves and their statistical moments. Applications to drainage basin analysis in SE Spain","volume":"35","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1952)63[1117:HAAOET]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Hypsometric (area\u2013altitude) analysis of erosional topography","volume":"63","author":"Strahler","year":"1952","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1971)82[1079:ERHIAG]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Elevation-relief ratio, hypsometric integral and geomorphic area-altitude analysis","volume":"82","author":"Pike","year":"1971","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1130\/B25721.1","article-title":"Tectonic geomorphology of the southeastern mississippi embayment in northern mississippi, USA","volume":"118","author":"Garrote","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2007.07.023","article-title":"Multi-stream order analyses in basin asymmetry: A tool to discriminate the influence of neotectonics in fluvial landscape development (madrid basin, central spain)","volume":"102","author":"Garrote","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2011.12.002","article-title":"Appraisal of active tectonics in hindu kush: Insights from dem derived geomorphic indices and drainage analysis","volume":"3","author":"Mahmood","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geosci. Front"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(99)00078-1","article-title":"Landslide hazard evaluation: A review of current techniques and their application in a multi-scale study, central italy","volume":"31","author":"Guzzetti","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geomorphology"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/3\/1024\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:45:12Z","timestamp":1760219112000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/3\/1024"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,1]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5031024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5031024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,1]]}}}