{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T17:50:28Z","timestamp":1780681828150,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,7]],"date-time":"2013-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1362614400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mapping of changes in the distribution of insect-caused forest damage remains an important forest monitoring application and challenge. Efficient and accurate methods are required for mapping and monitoring changes in insect defoliation to inform forest management and reporting activities. In this research, we develop and evaluate a LiDAR-driven (Light Detection And Ranging) approach for mapping defoliation caused by the Common pine sawfly (Diprion pini L.). Our method requires plot-level training data and airborne scanning LiDAR data. The approach is predicated on a forest canopy mask created by detecting forest canopy cover using LiDAR. The LiDAR returns that are reflected from the canopy (that is, returns &gt; half of maximum plot tree height) are used in the prediction of the defoliation. Predictions of defoliation are made at plot-level, which enables a direct integration of the method to operational forest management planning while also providing additional value-added from inventory-focused LiDAR datasets. In addition to the method development, we evaluated the prediction accuracy and investigated the required pulse density for operational LiDAR-based mapping of defoliation. Our method proved to be suitable for the mapping of defoliated stands, resulting in an overall mapping accuracy of 84.3% and a Cohen\u2019s kappa coefficient of 0.68.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5031220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,7]],"date-time":"2013-03-07T10:59:39Z","timestamp":1362653979000},"page":"1220-1234","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Area-Based Mapping of Defoliation of Scots Pine Stands Using Airborne Scanning LiDAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6552-9122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikko","family":"Vastaranta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University  of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tuula","family":"Kantola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University  of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P\u00e4ivi","family":"Lyytik\u00e4inen-Saarenmaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University  of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Holopainen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University  of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ville","family":"Kankare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University  of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Wulder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, Victoria,  BC V8Z 1M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juha","family":"Hyypp\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geodetic Institute,  FI-02431 Masala, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannu","family":"Hyypp\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Technology, Aalto University, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland"},{"name":"Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences, FI-00079 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2006.07.028","article-title":"Climate-induced boreal forest change: Predictions vs. current observations","volume":"56","author":"Soja","year":"2007","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2008.03.003","article-title":"Forest health conditions in North America","volume":"155","author":"Tkacz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Pollution"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Moore, B., and Allard, G. (2008). Climate Change Impacts on Forest Health, FAO. Forest Health and Biosecurity Working Paper FBS\/34E;."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.4039\/n08-CPA01","article-title":"Potential for range expansion of mountain pine beetle into the boreal forest of North America","volume":"142","author":"Safranyik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Canad. Entomol"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1079\/BER2002154","article-title":"Impact of sawfly defoliation on growth of Scots pine Pinus sylvestris (Pinaceae) and associated economic losses","volume":"92","author":"Tomppo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Entomol. Res"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"45","article-title":"Aerial overview survey of the mountain pine beetle epidemic in British Columbia: Communication of impacts","volume":"10","author":"Wulder","year":"2009","journal-title":"BC J. Ecosyst. Manag"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.03.001","article-title":"Mapping defoliation during a severe insect attack on Scots pine using airborne laser scanning","volume":"102","author":"Sohlberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2122665","article-title":"Classification of defoliated trees using tree-level airborne laser scanning data combined with aerial images","volume":"2","author":"Kantola","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Karjalainen, M., Kaasalainen, S., Hyypp\u00e4, J., Holopainen, M., Lyytik\u00e4inen-Saarenmaa, P., Krooks, A., and Jaakkola, A. (July, January 28). SAR Satellite Images and Terrestrial Laser Scanning in Forest Damages Mapping in Finland. Bergen, Norway. SP-686."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903380672","article-title":"Mapping gap fraction, LAI and defoliation using various ALS penetration variables","volume":"31","author":"Solberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2008.01742.x","article-title":"Spatio-temporal impact of climate change in the activity and voltinism of the spruce bark beetle, Ips. typographus","volume":"15","author":"Appelberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"14","article-title":"Detecting pine sawfly defoliation by means of remote sensing and GIS","volume":"44","author":"Holopainen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forstschutz Aktuell"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2008.9635135","article-title":"Monitoring tree-level insect population dynamics with multi-scale and multi-source remote sensing","volume":"53","author":"Wulder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Spat. Sci"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ruskean m\u00e4ntypisti\u00e4isen (Neodiprion sertifer) esiintyminen Suomessa vuosina 1966\u201383","volume":"662","author":"Juutinen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Folia Forestalia"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Lyytik\u00e4inen-Saarenmaa, P., Niemel\u00e4, P., and Annila, E. (2003, January 14\u201319). Growth Responses and Mortality of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) after a Pine Sawfly Outbreak. Kanazawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0889.2010.00487.x","article-title":"Implications of future disturbance regimes on the carbon balance of Canada\u2019s managed forest (2010\u20132100)","volume":"62","author":"Metsaranta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tellus"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kangas, A., and Maltamo, M. (2006). Forest Inventory. Methodology and Applications (Managing Forest Ecosystems), Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-4381-3"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wulder, M.A., and Franklin, S.E. (2007). Understanding Forest Disturbance and Spatial Pattern. Remote Sensing and GIS Approaches, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420005189"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1177\/030913339802200402","article-title":"Optical remote sensing techniques for the assessment of forest inventory and biophysical parameters","volume":"22","author":"Wulder","year":"1998","journal-title":"Progr. Phys. Geogr"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701736489","article-title":"Review of methods of small-footprint airborne laser scanning for extracting forest inventory data in boreal forests","volume":"29","author":"Hyyppa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(97)83000-6","article-title":"Determination of mean tree height of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data","volume":"52","year":"1997","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"27","article-title":"Detecting and estimating attributes for single trees using laser scanner","volume":"16","author":"Inkinen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Fin"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.09.001","article-title":"Status and future of laser scanning, synthetic aperture radar and hyperspectral remote sensing data for forest biomass assessment","volume":"65","author":"Koch","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Vastaranta, M., Korpela, I., Uotila, M., Hovi, A., and Holopainen, M. (2011, January 29\u201331). Area-Based Snow Damage Classification of Forest Canopies Using Bi-Temporal Lidar Data. Calgary, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10342-011-0593-2","article-title":"Mapping of snow-damaged trees in bi-temporal airborne LiDAR data","volume":"131","author":"Vastaranta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. For. Res"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1080\/02827580410019553","article-title":"Laser scanning of forest resources: The Nordic experience","volume":"19","author":"Gobakken","year":"2004","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00290-5","article-title":"Predicting forest stand characteristics with airborne scanning laser using a practical two-stage procedure and field data","volume":"80","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"141","article-title":"Adaptive cluster sampling in inventorying forest damage by the common pine sawfly (Diprion pini)","volume":"16","author":"Talvitie","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. For. Plan"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1990.10474975","article-title":"Adaptive cluster sampling","volume":"85","author":"Thompson","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Am. Statist. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"655","article-title":"Adaptive cluster sampling for forest inventories","volume":"39","author":"Roesch","year":"1993","journal-title":"For. Sci"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Eichhorn, J. (1998). Manual on Methods and Criteria for Harmonized Sampling, Assessment, Monitoring and Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Forests. Part. II. Visual Assessment of Crown Condition and Submanual on Visual Assessment of Crown Condition on Intensive Monitoring Plots, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Axelsson, P. (2000, January 16\u201323). DEM Generation from Laser Scanner Data Using Adaptive TIN Models. Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3081614","article-title":"Effects of individual tree detection error sources on forest management planning calculations","volume":"3","author":"Vastaranta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpr051","article-title":"Comparative testing of single-tree detection algorithms under different types of forest","volume":"85","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4040950","article-title":"An international comparison of individual tree detection and extraction using airborne laser scanning","volume":"4","author":"Kaartinen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"925","article-title":"Detecting and measuring individual trees using an airborne laser scanner","volume":"68","author":"Persson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.08.003","article-title":"Predicting individual tree attributes from airborne laser point clouds based on random forest technique","volume":"66","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Crookston, N.L., and Finley, A.O. yaImpute: A R package for efficient nearest neighbor imputation routines variance estimation, and mapping, 2007\u20132010. Available online: http:\/\/cran.r-project.org (accessed on 18 October 2012)."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1139\/X09-183","article-title":"Landscape-scale parameterization of a tree-level forest growth model: A k-NN imputation approach incorporating LiDAR data","volume":"40","author":"Falkowski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.10.009","article-title":"Nearest neighbor imputation of species-level, plot-scale forest structure attributes from LiDAR data","volume":"112","author":"Hudak","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpq022","article-title":"Non-parametric prediction and mapping of standing timber volume and biomass in a temperate forest: application of multiple optical\/LiDAR-derived predictors","volume":"83","author":"Latifi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"The R Project for Statistical Computing Available online: http:\/\/www.r-project.org\/ (accessed on 13 December 2012)."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Kantola, T., Lyytik\u00e4inen-Saarenmaa, P., Vastaranta, M., Kankare, V., Yu, X., Holopainen, M., Talvitie, M., Solberg, S., Puolakka, P., and Hyypp\u00e4, J. (2011, January 16\u201320). Using High Density ALS Data in Plot Level Estimation of the Defoliation by the Common Pine Sawfly. University of Tasmania, Australia."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Ilvesniemi, S. (2009). Numeeriset ilmakuvat ja Landsat TM -satelliittikuvat m\u00e4nnyn neulaskadon arvioinnissa (in Finnish); Pro Gradu, Mets\u00e4varojen k\u00e4yt\u00f6n laitos, Helsingin yliopisto."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/3\/1220\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:45:22Z","timestamp":1760219122000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/3\/1220"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,7]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5031220"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5031220","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,7]]}}}