{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T12:49:15Z","timestamp":1773751755626,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,19]],"date-time":"2013-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1366329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Individual tree crowns may be delineated from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data by segmentation of surface models or by 3D analysis. Segmentation of surface models benefits from using a priori knowledge about the proportions of tree crowns, which has not yet been utilized for 3D analysis to any great extent. In this study, an existing surface segmentation method was used as a basis for a new tree model 3D clustering method applied to ALS returns in 104 circular field plots with 12 m radius in pine-dominated boreal forest (64\u00b014'N, 19\u00b050'E). For each cluster below the tallest canopy layer, a parabolic surface was fitted to model a tree crown. The tree model clustering identified more trees than segmentation of the surface model, especially smaller trees below the tallest canopy layer. Stem attributes were estimated with k-Most Similar Neighbours (k-MSN) imputation of the clusters based on field-measured trees. The accuracy at plot level from the k-MSN imputation (stem density root mean square error or RMSE 32.7%; stem volume RMSE 28.3%) was similar to the corresponding results from the surface model (stem density RMSE 33.6%; stem volume RMSE 26.1%) with leave-one-out cross-validation for one field plot at a time. Three-dimensional analysis of ALS data should also be evaluated in multi-layered forests since it identified a larger number of small trees below the tallest canopy layer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5041932","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,19]],"date-time":"2013-04-19T11:00:47Z","timestamp":1366369247000},"page":"1932-1955","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Estimation of Tree Lists from Airborne Laser Scanning Using Tree Model Clustering and k-MSN Imputation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1792-0773","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Lindberg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,  SE-90183 Ume\u00e5, Sweden"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7112-8015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johan","family":"Holmgren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,  SE-90183 Ume\u00e5, Sweden"}]},{"given":"Kenneth","family":"Olofsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,  SE-90183 Ume\u00e5, Sweden"}]},{"given":"J\u00f6rgen","family":"Wallerman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,  SE-90183 Ume\u00e5, Sweden"}]},{"given":"H\u00e5kan","family":"Olsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,  SE-90183 Ume\u00e5, Sweden"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2008.01.008","article-title":"Potential recovery of industrial wood and energy wood raw material in different cutting and climate scenarios for finland","volume":"32","author":"Matala","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenerg"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1699(03)00022-X","article-title":"Algorithms for simulating thinning and harvesting in five european individual-tree growth simulators: A review","volume":"39","author":"Ledermann","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Agric"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.05.059","article-title":"A model for regional analysis of carbon sequestration and timber production","volume":"216","author":"Backeus","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"87","article-title":"The heureka forestry decision support system: An overview","volume":"3","author":"Edenius","year":"2011","journal-title":"Math. Comput. For. Nat. Resour. Sci"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2007.04.031","article-title":"Comparison of basal area and stem frequency diameter distribution modelling using airborne laser scanner data and calibration estimation","volume":"247","author":"Maltamo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00290-5","article-title":"Predicting forest stand characteristics with airborne scanning laser using a practical two-stage procedure and field data","volume":"80","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.01.005","article-title":"The k-msn method for the prediction of species-specific stand attributes using airborne laser scanning and aerial photographs","volume":"109","author":"Maltamo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.5.589","article-title":"Seeing the trees in the forest: Using lidar and multispectral data fusion with local filtering and variable window size for estimating tree height","volume":"70","author":"Popescu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1109\/36.921414","article-title":"A segmentation-based method to retrieve stem volume estimates from 3-d tree height models produced by laser scanners","volume":"39","author":"Kelle","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"925","article-title":"Detecting and measuring individual trees using an airborne laser scanner","volume":"68","author":"Persson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.12.1369","article-title":"Single tree segmentation using airborne laser scanner data in a structurally heterogeneous spruce forest","volume":"72","author":"Solberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1093\/forestscience\/55.1.37","article-title":"Identification of scandinavian commercial species of individual trees from airborne laser scanning data using alpha shape metrics","volume":"55","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Forest Sci"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00140-8","article-title":"Identifying species of individual trees using airborne laser scanner","volume":"90","author":"Holmgren","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.203","article-title":"Predicting tree attributes and quality characteristics of scots pine using airborne laser scanning data","volume":"43","author":"Maltamo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Silva Fenn"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.05.020","article-title":"Strengths and limitations of assessing forest density and spatial configuration with aerial lidar","volume":"115","author":"Richardson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.01.006","article-title":"Estimation of timber volume and stem density based on scanning laser altimetry and expected tree size distribution functions","volume":"90","author":"Maltamo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903380649","article-title":"Estimation of tree lists from airborne laser scanning by combining single-tree and area-based methods","volume":"31","author":"Lindberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.56","article-title":"Prediction of stem attributes by combining airborne laser scanning and measurements from harvesters","volume":"46","author":"Holmgren","year":"2012","journal-title":"Silva Fenn"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.12.004","article-title":"Prediction of species specific forest inventory attributes using a nonparametric semi-individual tree crown approach based on fused airborne laser scanning and multispectral data","volume":"114","author":"Breidenbach","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4051190","article-title":"Advances in forest inventory using airborne laser scanning","volume":"4","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00008-8","article-title":"Processing of laser scanner data\u2014algorithms and applications","volume":"54","author":"Axelsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(98)00009-4","article-title":"Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data","volume":"53","author":"Kraus","year":"1998","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Barilotti, A., Sepic, F., and Abramo, E (2008, January 17\u201319). Automatic Detection of Dominated Vegetation under Canopy Using Airborne Laser Scanning Data. Edinburgh, UK."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2040968","article-title":"Comparative analysis of clustering-based approaches for 3-D single tree detection using airborne fullwave lidar data","volume":"2","author":"Gupta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160902882561","article-title":"Adaptive clustering of airborne lidar data to segment individual tree crowns in managed pine forests","volume":"31","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.05.013","article-title":"Lidar-based geometric reconstruction of boreal type forest stands at single tree level for forest and wildland fire management","volume":"92","author":"Morsdorf","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4020377","article-title":"Tree species detection accuracies using discrete point lidar and airborne waveform lidar","volume":"4","author":"Vaughn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.01.020","article-title":"3-D mapping of a multi-layered mediterranean forest using als data","volume":"121","author":"Ferraz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.04.002","article-title":"3D segmentation of single trees exploiting full waveform lidar data","volume":"64","author":"Reitberger","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4001","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2023906","article-title":"Signatures of alos palsar L-band backscatter in swedish forest","volume":"47","author":"Santoro","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"L\u00e4m\u00e5s, T (2010). The Hagl\u00f6f Postex Ultrasound Instrument for the Positioning of Objects on Forest Sample Plots, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.slu.se\/heureka."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"S\u00f6derberg, U (1986). Funktioner f\u00f6r Skogliga Produktionsprognoser. Tillv\u00e4xt och Formh\u00f6jd f\u00f6r Enskilda Tr\u00e4d av Inhemska Tr\u00e4dslag i Sverige (in Swedish), Institutionen f\u00f6r Skogstaxering (Department of Forest Survey), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Report 14;."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"S\u00f6derberg, U (1992). Funktioner f\u00f6r Skogsindelning. H\u00f6jd, Formh\u00f6jd och Barktjocklek f\u00f6r Enskilda Tr\u00e4d (in Swedish), Institutionen f\u00f6r Skogstaxering (Department of Forest Survey), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Report 52;."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Elfving, B (2003). \u00c5lderstilldelning Till Enskilda Tr\u00e4d i Skogliga Tillv\u00e4xtprognoser (in Swedish), Institutionen f\u00f6r Skogstaxering (Department of Forest Survey), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Report 182;."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Axelsson, P (2000, January 16\u201322). Dem Generation from Laser Scanner Data Using Adaptive Tin Models. Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Soininen, A (2004). Terra Scan for Microstation, User\u2019s Guide, Terrasolid Ltd."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Pollock, R.J. (1996). The Automatic Recognition of Individual Trees in Aerial Images of Forests Based on a Synthetic Tree Crown Image Model, University of British Columbia."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Olofsson, K., Lindberg, E., and Holmgren, J (2008, January 17\u201319). A Method for Linking Field-Surveyed and Aerial-Detected Single Trees Using cross Correlation of Position Images and the Optimization of Weighted Tree List Graphs. Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"MacQueen, J (July, January 21). Some Methods for Classification and Analysis of Multivariate Observations. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Gonzalez, R.C., and Woods, R.E. (2008). Digital Image Processing, Pearson Prentice Hall. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1093\/forestscience\/41.2.337","article-title":"Most similar neighbor\u2014An improved sampling inference procedure for natural-resource planning","volume":"41","author":"Moeur","year":"1995","journal-title":"Forest Sci"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1093\/forestscience\/34.2.373","article-title":"Goodness-of-fit tests and model selection procedures for diameter distribution models","volume":"34","author":"Reynolds","year":"1988","journal-title":"Forest Sci"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1007\/s10342-010-0384-1","article-title":"Comparison of nearest neighbour approaches for small area estimation of tree species-specific forest inventory attributes in central europe using airborne laser scanner data","volume":"129","author":"Breidenbach","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. For. Res"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.01.016","article-title":"Imputation of single-tree attributes using airborne laser scanning-based height, intensity, and alpha shape metrics","volume":"114","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpr051","article-title":"Comparative testing of single-tree detection algorithms under different types of forest","volume":"85","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Shan, J., and Toth, C. (2009). Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning: Principles and Processing, CRC Press\/Taylor & Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2494","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3112494","article-title":"Airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) for individual tree stem location, height, and biomass measurements","volume":"3","author":"Edson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Persson, \u00c5., S\u00f6derman, U., T\u00f6pel, J., and Ahlberg, S. (2005, January 12\u201314). Visualization and Analysis of Full-Waveform Airborne Laser Scanner Data. Enschede, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.604655"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701736398","article-title":"3D vegetation mapping using small-footprint full-waveform airborne laser scanners","volume":"29","author":"Wagner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Kaartinen, H., and Hyypp\u00e4, J (2008). Eurosdr\/ISPRS Project Commission II: Tree Extraction, Final Report, EuroSDR, European Spatial Data Research. Official Publication No 53."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4040950","article-title":"An international comparison of individual tree detection and extraction using airborne laser scanning","volume":"4","author":"Kaartinen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/4\/1932\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:46:15Z","timestamp":1760219175000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/4\/1932"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,19]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5041932"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5041932","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,19]]}}}