{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T12:39:03Z","timestamp":1773232743481,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,22]],"date-time":"2013-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1366588800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Canopy structure, the vertical distribution of canopy material, is an important element of forest ecosystem dynamics and habitat preference. Although vertical stratification, or \u201ccanopy layering,\u201d is a basic characterization of canopy structure for research and forest management, it is difficult to quantify at landscape scales. In this paper we describe canopy structure and develop methodologies to map forest vertical stratification in a mixed temperate forest using full-waveform lidar. Two definitions\u2014one categorical and one continuous\u2014are used to map canopy layering over Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire with lidar data collected in 2009 by NASA\u2019s Laser Vegetation Imaging Sensor (LVIS). The two resulting canopy layering datasets describe variation of canopy layering throughout the forest and show that layering varies with terrain elevation and canopy height. This information should provide increased understanding of vertical structure variability and aid habitat characterization and other forest management activities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5042014","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,22]],"date-time":"2013-04-22T14:02:19Z","timestamp":1366639339000},"page":"2014-2036","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Characterization of Canopy Layering in Forested Ecosystems Using Full Waveform Lidar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Amanda","family":"Whitehurst","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, 2181 Samuel J. LeFrak Hall, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}]},{"given":"Anu","family":"Swatantran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, 2181 Samuel J. LeFrak Hall, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Blair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Remote Sensing Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Hofton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, 2181 Samuel J. LeFrak Hall, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}]},{"given":"Ralph","family":"Dubayah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, 2181 Samuel J. LeFrak Hall, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.2307\/1932254","article-title":"On bird species diversity","volume":"42","author":"MacArthur","year":"1961","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"34","article-title":"Forest structure: A key to the ecosystem","volume":"72","author":"Spies","year":"1998","journal-title":"Northwest Sci"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1127(97)00254-5","article-title":"A method for quantifying vertical forest structure","volume":"104","author":"Latham","year":"1998","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Loman, M.D., and Rinker, H.B. (2004). Forest Canopies, Elsevier Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8312.1997.tb01630.x","article-title":"Species diversity in vertical, horizontal, and temporal dimensions of a fruit-feeding butterfly community in an Ecuadorian rainforest","volume":"62","author":"DeVries","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biol. J. Linn. Soc"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1017590007861","article-title":"Neotropical bats in the canopy: Diversity, community structure, and implications for conservation","volume":"153","author":"Kalko","year":"2001","journal-title":"Plant Ecol"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.2307\/2258170","article-title":"An analysis of four tropical rain forest sites in New Guinea","volume":"58","author":"Paijmans","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Ecol"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"265","article-title":"Competitive interactions and adaptive strategies of American redstarts and least flycatchers in a Northern Hardwoods forest","volume":"96","author":"Sherry","year":"1979","journal-title":"The Auk"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00045615","article-title":"Patterns in the vertical structure of the tropical lowland rain forest of los tuxtlas, Mexico","volume":"74","author":"Popma","year":"1988","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.2307\/2425486","article-title":"The university of notre dame changes in forest canopy structure along a site quality gradient in Southern Wisconsin","volume":"108","author":"Aber","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. Midl. Nat"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1127(99)00118-8","article-title":"A quantitative technique for the identification of canopy stratification in tropical and temperate forests","volume":"127","author":"Baker","year":"2000","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1029\/93WR03067","article-title":"Comparison of laser and field measurements of vegetation height and canopy cover watershed precision vegetation properties height and canopy","volume":"30","author":"Weltz","year":"1994","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1086\/303340","article-title":"Forest canopy stratification\u2014Is it useful?","volume":"155","author":"Parker","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Nat"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.08.034","article-title":"Forest and woodland stand structural complexity: Its definition and measurement","volume":"218","author":"McElhinny","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7429.2000.tb00506.x","article-title":"What\u2019s \u201cUp\u201d? A critical loolc at the basic terms of canopy biology","volume":"32","author":"Moffett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1086\/282866","article-title":"Stratification of temperature and tropical forests","volume":"107","author":"Smith","year":"1973","journal-title":"Am. Nat"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2004.02.025","article-title":"Forest structure characteristics in disturbed and undisturbed sites of Mt. Elgon Moist Lower Montane Forest, western Kenya","volume":"194","author":"Hitimana","year":"2004","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.05.034","article-title":"Identifying and quantifying structural characteristics of heterogeneous boreal forests using laser scanner data","volume":"216","author":"Maltamo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1093\/jof\/98.6.44","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing for forestry applications","volume":"98","author":"Dubayah","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Forest"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2002)052[0019:LRSFES]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing for ecosystem studies","volume":"52","author":"Lefsky","year":"2002","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1890\/070001","article-title":"Lidar: Shedding new light on habitat characterization and modeling","volume":"6","author":"Vierling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.03.005","article-title":"Mapping forest structure for wildlife habitat analysis using waveform lidar: Validation of montane ecosystems","volume":"96","author":"Hyde","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.11.016","article-title":"Laser remote sensing of canopy habitat heterogeneity as a predictor of bird species richness in an eastern temperate forest, USA","volume":"108","author":"Goetz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swatantran, A., Dubayah, R., Goetz, S., Hofton, M., Betts, M.G., Sun, M., Simard, M., and Holmes, R (PLoS One, 2012). Mapping migratory bird prevalence using remote sensing data fusion, PLoS One.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0028922"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4851","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000139962","article-title":"Predicting habitat quality for Great Tits (Parus major) with airborne laser scanning data","volume":"25","author":"Hill","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1890\/09-1670.1","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing variables predict breeding habitat of a Neotropical migrant bird","volume":"91","author":"Goetz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00091-1","article-title":"Use of large-footprint scanning airborne lidar to estimate forest stand characteristics in the Western Cascades of Oregon","volume":"3308","author":"Means","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.11.022","article-title":"Forest ecology and management a comparison of lidar, radar, and field measurements of canopy height in pine and hardwood forests of southeastern North America","volume":"257","author":"Sexton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.06.020","article-title":"Three-dimensional characterization of pine forest type and red-cockaded woodpecker habitat by small-footprint, discrete-return lidar","volume":"281","author":"Smart","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-013-9861-5","article-title":"Environmental and conspecific cues influencing Red-Cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) prospecting movements during dispersal behavior","volume":"28","author":"Trainor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landscape Ecol"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s00468-006-0119-6","article-title":"Estimating canopy structure of Douglas-fir forest stands from discrete-return LiDAR","volume":"21","author":"Coops","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trees"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1093\/treephys\/tpn022","article-title":"Estimating forest LAI profiles and structural parameters using a ground-based laser called \u201cEchidna\u201d","volume":"29","author":"Jupp","year":"2008","journal-title":"Tree Physiol"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00139-1","article-title":"Characterizing vertical forest structure using small-footprint airborne LiDAR","volume":"87","author":"Zimble","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.08.023","article-title":"The use of airborne lidar to assess avian species diversity, density, and occurrence in a pine\/aspen forest","volume":"112","author":"Clawges","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.01.003","article-title":"Characterizing forest succession with lidar data: An evaluation for the Inland Northwest, USA","volume":"113","author":"Falkowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.10.006","article-title":"Composition versus physiognomy of vegetation as predictors of bird assemblages: The role of lidar","volume":"114","author":"Stadler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1127(00)00371-6","article-title":"Structure and composition of three northern hardwood-conifer forests with differing disturbance histories","volume":"144","author":"Schwarz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00002-7","article-title":"The laser vegetation imaging sensor: A medium-altitude, digitisation-only, airborne laser altimeter for mapping vegetation and topography","volume":"54","author":"Blair","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-3707(02)00046-7","article-title":"Validation of vegetation canopy lidar sub-canopy topography measurements for a dense tropical forest","volume":"34","author":"Hofton","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geodynamics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JG000933","article-title":"Estimation of tropical forest height and biomass dynamics using lidar remote sensing at La Selva, Costa Rica","volume":"115","author":"Dubayah","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00281-4","article-title":"Estimation of tropical forest structural characteristics using large-footprint lidar","volume":"79","author":"Drake","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1109\/36.951085","article-title":"Modeling lidar waveforms in heterogeneous and discrete canopies","volume":"39","author":"Jupp","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00091-1","article-title":"Use of large-footprint scanning airborne lidar to estimate forest stand characteristics in the Western Cascades of Oregon","volume":"67","author":"Means","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.2307\/1933693","article-title":"Foliage profile by vertical measurements","volume":"50","author":"Macarthur","year":"1969","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00071-6","article-title":"Surface lidar remote sensing of basal area and biomass in deciduous forests of eastern Maryland, USA","volume":"67","author":"Lefsky","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(99)00052-8","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing of the canopy structure and biophysical properties of douglas-fir western hemlock forests","volume":"70","author":"Lefsky","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00210-8","article-title":"Laser altimeter canopy height profiles: Methods and validation for closed-canopy, broadleaf forests","volume":"76","author":"Harding","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Helms, J.A. (1998). The Dictionary of Forestry, Society of American Foresters."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"3","article-title":"Ecological scale and forest development: Squirrels, dietary fungi, and vascular plants in managed and unmanaged forests","volume":"142","author":"Carey","year":"1999","journal-title":"Wildlife Monogr"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Avaiable online: http:\/\/www.globe.gov\/documents\/355050\/355097\/lc_fg_treeheight.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Available online: mdc4.mdc.mo.gov\/Documents\/13183.doc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00031726","article-title":"Canopy structures and its effect on shoot growth and flowering in subalpine forests","volume":"86","author":"Koike","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00048865","article-title":"Searching for a model for use in vegetation analysis","volume":"42","author":"Austin","year":"1980","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.2307\/1942313","article-title":"The hubbard brook ecosystem study: Forest biomass and production","volume":"44","author":"Whittaker","year":"1974","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1093\/treephys\/2.1-2-3.47","article-title":"Physiographic, stand, and environmental effects on individual tree growth and growth efficiency in subalpine forests","volume":"2","author":"Kaufmann","year":"1986","journal-title":"Tree Physiol"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.2307\/1313077","article-title":"Limits to tree height hydraulic and tree growth","volume":"47","author":"Ryan","year":"1997","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9615(2003)073[0241:SVITGI]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variability in tree growth in the central pyrenees: Climatic and site influences","volume":"73","author":"Tardif","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.06.016","article-title":"Remote sensing of environment dynamics of national forests assessed using the Landsat record: Case studies in eastern United States","volume":"113","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.2307\/2258857","article-title":"Competiton and stand structure in some even-aged plant monocultures","volume":"63","author":"Ford","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Ecol"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Cannell, M.G., and Jackson, J.E. (1985). Attributes of Trees as Crop Plants, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1139\/x98-093","article-title":"Crown structure and growth efficiency of red spruce in uneven-aged, mixed-species stands in Maine","volume":"28","author":"Maguire","year":"1998","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1890\/02-5317","article-title":"Beyond potential vegetation: Combining lidar data and a height-structured model for carbon studies","volume":"14","author":"Hurtt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.5589\/m08-036","article-title":"Using lidar data and a height-structured ecosystem model to estimate forest carbon stocks adn fluxes over mountainous terrain","volume":"34","author":"Thomas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/4\/2014\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:46:18Z","timestamp":1760219178000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/4\/2014"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,22]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5042014"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5042014","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,22]]}}}