{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T07:57:36Z","timestamp":1776326256390,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,14]],"date-time":"2013-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1368489600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Plot-based sampling with ground measurements or photography is typically used to establish and maintain National Forest Inventories (NFI). The re-measurement phase of the Canadian NFI is an opportunity to develop novel methods for the estimation of  forest attributes such as stand height, crown closure, volume, and aboveground biomass (AGB) from satellite, rather than, airborne imagery. Based on panchromatic Very High Spatial Resolution (VHSR) images and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data acquired in the Yukon Territory, Canada, we propose an approach for boreal forest stand attribute characterization. Stand and tree objects are delineated, followed by modeling of stand height, volume, and AGB using metrics derived from the stand and tree crown objects. The calibration and validation of the models are based on co-located LiDAR-derived estimates. A k-nearest neighbor approach provided the best accuracy for stand height estimation (R2 = 0.76, RMSE = 1.95 m). Linear regression models were the most efficient for estimating stand volume (R2 = 0.94, RMSE = 9.6 m3\/ha) and AGB (R2 = 0.92, RMSE = 22.2 t\/ha). This study was implemented for one Canadian ecozone and demonstrated the capacity of a methodology to produce forest inventory attributes with acceptable accuracies offering potential to be applied to other boreal regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5052308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,14]],"date-time":"2013-05-14T11:21:04Z","timestamp":1368530464000},"page":"2308-2326","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Modeling Stand Height, Volume, and Biomass from Very High Spatial Resolution Satellite Imagery and Samples of Airborne LiDAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Brice","family":"Mora","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian Forest service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Wulder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian Forest service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joanne","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian Forest service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Geordie","family":"Hobart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian Forest service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomppo, E.O., Gschwantner, T., Lawrence, M., and McRoberts, R.E. (2010). National Forest Inventories: Pathways for Common Reporting, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-3233-1"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-9006(03)00069-2","article-title":"National level forest monitoring and modelling in Canada","volume":"61","author":"Wulder","year":"2004","journal-title":"Progr. Plan."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.unep.org\/maweb\/en\/BoardStatement.aspx."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc81214-2","article-title":"Monitoring Canada\u2019s forests: The National Forest Inventory","volume":"81","author":"Gillis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forest Chron."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2004). Canada\u2019s National Forest Inventory: Photo Plot Guidelines, Natural Resources Canada. Version 1.1."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Power, K., and Gillis, M.D. (2006). Canada\u2019s Forest Inventory 2001, Natural Resources Canada Canadian Forest Service Pacific Forestry Centre."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc83539-4","article-title":"National circumstances in the international circumboreal community","volume":"83","author":"Wulder","year":"2007","journal-title":"Forest Chron."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.5589\/m08-066","article-title":"Monitoring Canada\u2019s forests. Part 1: Completion of the EOSD land cover project","volume":"34","author":"Wulder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309342643","article-title":"Supporting large-area, sample-based forest inventories with very high spatial resolution satellite imagery","volume":"33","author":"Falkowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Progr. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.5589\/m12-049","article-title":"Lidar plots\u2014A new large-area data collection option: Context, concepts, and case study","volume":"38","author":"Wulder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2006.01.014","article-title":"Modeling forest stand structure attributes using Landsat ETM+ data: Application to mapping of aboveground biomass and stand volume","volume":"225","author":"Hall","year":"2006","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomppo, E.O., Gschwantner, T., Lawrence, M., and McRoberts, R.E. (2010). National Forest Inventories: Pathways for Common Reporting, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-3233-1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomppo, E.O., Gschwantner, T., Lawrence, M., and McRoberts, R.E. (2010). National Forest Inventories: Pathways for Common Reporting, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-3233-1"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1080\/02827580410019553","article-title":"Laser scanning of forest resources: The Nordic experience","volume":"19","author":"Gobakken","year":"2004","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc84807-6","article-title":"The role of LiDAR in sustainable forest management","volume":"84","author":"Wulder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forest Chron."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-032","article-title":"Forest inventory height update through the integration of lidar data with segmented Landsat imagery","volume":"29","author":"Wulder","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"28","article-title":"GEOBIA framework to estimate forest parameters from lidar transects, Quickbird imagery and machine learning: A case study in Quebec, Canada","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.05.022","article-title":"Segment-constrained regression tree estimation of forest stand height from very high spatial resolution panchromatic imagery over a boreal environment","volume":"114","author":"Mora","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.1995.10874622","article-title":"A crown-following approach to the automatic delineation of individual tree crowns in high spatial resolution aerial images","volume":"21","author":"Gougeon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.03.056","article-title":"Simulation and quantification of the fine-scale spatial pattern and heterogeneity of forest canopy structure: A lacunarity-based method designed for analysis of continuous canopy heights","volume":"214","author":"Frazer","year":"2005","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manage"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(1995). A National Ecological Framework for Canada, Government of Canada."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Available online: www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca\/climate_normals."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Krause, K. (2003). Radiance Conversion of QuickBird Data\u2014Technical Note, DigitalGlobe Inc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krause, K.S. (2008). WorldView-1 pre and Post-Launch Radiometric Calibration and Early On-Orbit Characterization, DigitalGlobe Inc.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.794340"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.5589\/m02-065","article-title":"Landsat-7 ETM+ orthoimage coverage of Canada","volume":"28","author":"Wulder","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Hopkinson, C., Wulder, M.A., Coops, N.C., Milne, T., Fox, A., and Bater, C.W. (2011, January 16\u201319). Airborne Lidar Sampling of the Canadian Boreal Forest: Planning, Execution, and Initial Processing. Hobart, TS, Australia."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"110","article-title":"DEM generation from laser scanner data using adaptive TIN models","volume":"33","author":"Axelsson","year":"2000","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"McGaughey, R.J. (2010). FUSION\/LDV: Software for Lidar Data Analysis and Visualization (No. Version 2.90), US Department of Agriculture. Version 2."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(95)00224-3","article-title":"Estimation of tree heights and stand volume using an airborne LiDAR system","volume":"56","author":"Nilsson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1080\/02827580310019257","article-title":"Practical large-scale forest stand inventory using a small-footprint airborne scanning laser","volume":"19","year":"2004","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Marshall, P.M., and Lemay, V. (2005). Forestry Handbook for British Columbia, The Forestry Undergraduate Society, University of British Columbia."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1139\/x05-112","article-title":"Canadian national tree aboveground biomass equations","volume":"35","author":"Lambert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1139\/X07-224","article-title":"Canada national biomass equations: New parameter estimates that include British Columbia data","volume":"38","author":"Ung","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1093\/wjaf\/23.4.223","article-title":"A comparison of statistical methods for estimating forest biomass from light detection and ranging data","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Western J. Appl. For."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Akaike, H. (1973). Second International Symposium on Information Theory, Academiai Kiado."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1080\/10635150490522304","article-title":"Model selection and model averaging in phylogenetics: Advantages of akaike information criterion and bayesian approaches over likelihood ratio tests","volume":"53","author":"Posada","year":"2004","journal-title":"Syst. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Baatz, M., and Sch\u00e4pe, A. (2000, January 5\u20137). Multiresolution Segmentation\u2014An Optimization Approach for High Quality Multiscale Image Segmentation. Karlsruhe, Germany."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2004). eCognition 4 User Guide, Definiens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc84221-2","article-title":"Towards automated segmentation of forest inventory polygons on high spatial resolution satellite imagery","volume":"84","author":"Wulder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forest Chron."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Wulder, M.A., and Nelson, T. (2003). EOSD Land Cover Classification Legend Report, Canadian Forest Service Natural Resources Canada. Version 2."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(97)83000-6","article-title":"Determination of mean tree height of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data","volume":"52","year":"1997","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Lowman, M.D., and Nadkarni, N.M. (1995). Forest Canopies: A Review of Research on a Biological Frontier, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1466-822X.2003.00026.x","article-title":"Global synthesis of leaf area index observations: Implications for ecological and remote sensing studies","volume":"12","author":"Asner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2005). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, Reference Index Version 2.2.1, R Foundations for Statistical Computing. Available online: http:\/\/www.r-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v023.i10","article-title":"YaImpute: An R Package for kNN Imputation","volume":"23","author":"Crookston","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2012). The State of Canada\u2019s Forests: Annual Report 2012, Natural Resources Canada."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Paine, D.P., and Kiser, J.D. (2003). Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-027","article-title":"Measuring individual tree crown diameter with LiDAR and assessing its influence on estimating forest volume and biomass","volume":"29","author":"Popescu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.74.11.1335","article-title":"Estimation of forest stand characteristics using spectral histograms derived from an IKONOS satellite image","volume":"74","author":"Peuhkurnen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.04.007","article-title":"Use of ETM+ images to extend stem volume estimates obtained from LiDAR data","volume":"66","author":"Maselli","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.03.004","article-title":"Estimation of above- and below-ground biomass across regions of the boreal forest zone using airborne laser","volume":"112","author":"Gobakken","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1006\/anbo.1996.0334","article-title":"Cross-validation of non-linear growth functions for modelling tree height-diameter relationships","volume":"79","author":"Zhang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Bot."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1093\/wjaf\/19.4.245","article-title":"Largest-crown-width prediction models for 53 species in the western United States","volume":"19","author":"Bechtold","year":"2004","journal-title":"Western J. Appl. For."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc84221-2","article-title":"Towards automated segmentation of forest inventory polygons on high spatial resolution satellite imagery","volume":"84","author":"Wulder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forest Chron."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/5\/2308\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:46:43Z","timestamp":1760219203000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/5\/2308"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,14]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5052308"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5052308","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,14]]}}}