{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T23:58:21Z","timestamp":1780444701489,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,30]],"date-time":"2013-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1369872000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Radiometric precision is difficult to maintain in orbital images due to several factors (atmospheric conditions, Earth-sun distance, detector calibration, illumination, and viewing angles). These unwanted effects must be removed for radiometric consistency among temporal images, leaving only land-leaving radiances, for optimum change detection. A variety of relative radiometric correction techniques were developed for the correction or rectification of images, of the same area, through use of reference targets whose reflectance do not change significantly with time, i.e., pseudo-invariant features (PIFs). This paper proposes a new technique for radiometric normalization, which uses three sequential methods for an accurate PIFs selection: spectral measures of temporal data (spectral distance and similarity), density scatter plot analysis (ridge method), and robust regression. The spectral measures used are the spectral angle (Spectral Angle Mapper, SAM), spectral correlation (Spectral Correlation Mapper, SCM), and Euclidean distance. The spectral measures between the spectra at times t1 and t2 and are calculated for each pixel. After classification using threshold values, it is possible to define points with the same spectral behavior, including PIFs. The distance and similarity measures are complementary and can be calculated together. The ridge method uses a density plot generated from images acquired on different dates for the selection of PIFs. In a density plot, the invariant pixels, together, form a high-density ridge, while variant pixels (clouds and land cover changes) are spread, having low density, facilitating its exclusion. Finally, the selected PIFs are subjected to a robust regression (M-estimate) between pairs of temporal bands for the detection and elimination of outliers, and to obtain the optimal linear equation for a given set of target points. The robust regression is insensitive to outliers, i.e., observation that appears to deviate strongly from the rest of the data in which it occurs, and as in our case, change areas. New sequential methods enable one to select by different attributes, a number of invariant targets over the brightness range of the images.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5062763","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,31]],"date-time":"2013-05-31T03:25:30Z","timestamp":1369970730000},"page":"2763-2794","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["Radiometric Normalization of Temporal Images Combining Automatic Detection of Pseudo-Invariant Features from the Distance and Similarity Spectral Measures, Density Scatterplot Analysis, and Robust Regression"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0346-1684","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"J\u00fanior","given":"Osmar","family":"De Carvalho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Geografia, Universidade de Bras\u00edlia (UnB), Campus Universit\u00e1rio Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Bras\u00edlia, DF 70910-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9555-043X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renato","family":"Guimar\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Geografia, Universidade de Bras\u00edlia (UnB), Campus Universit\u00e1rio Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Bras\u00edlia, DF 70910-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nilton","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharias do Gama, Gama, DF 72444-240, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan","family":"Gillespie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Geografia, Universidade de Bras\u00edlia (UnB), Campus Universit\u00e1rio Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Bras\u00edlia, DF 70910-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cristiano","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Geografia, Universidade de Bras\u00edlia (UnB), Campus Universit\u00e1rio Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Bras\u00edlia, DF 70910-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"De Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Coloniza\u00e7\u00e3o e Reforma Agr\u00e1ria, Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o-Geral de Meio Ambiente DTM, SBN Quadra 1, bloco D, Ed. Pal\u00e1cio do Desenvolvimento, Bras\u00edlia, DF 71670-020, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00248-6","article-title":"Radiometric cross-calibration of the Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-5 TM sensors based on tandem data sets","volume":"78","author":"Teillet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500183057","article-title":"Radiometric correction effects in Landsat multi-date\/multi-sensor change detection studies","volume":"27","author":"Paolini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00029-9","article-title":"Radiometric normalization of multitemporal high-resolution satellite images with quality control for land cover change detection","volume":"82","author":"Du","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"853","article-title":"Radiometric calibration of Landsat","volume":"63","author":"Thome","year":"1997","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00096-0","article-title":"Relative calibration of multitemporal Landsat data for forest cover change detection","volume":"68","author":"Tokola","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00249-8","article-title":"Effects of Landsat 5 thematic mapper and Landsat 7 enhanced thematic mapper plus radiometric and geometric calibrations and corrections on landscape characterization","volume":"78","author":"Vogelmann","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(91)90062-B","article-title":"Radiometric rectification: Toward a common radiometric response among multidate, multisensor images","volume":"35","author":"Hall","year":"1991","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-2716(96)00018-4","article-title":"Comparison of relative radiometric normalization techniques","volume":"51","author":"Yuan","year":"1996","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"571","article-title":"Automatic detection of vegetation changes in the southwestern United States using remotely sensed images","volume":"60","author":"Chavez","year":"1994","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Colwell, R.N. (1983). Manual of Remote Sensing, American Society of Photogrammetry. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168908903951","article-title":"An alternative simple approach to estimate atmospheric correction in multitemporal studies","volume":"10","author":"Caselles","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169108955184","article-title":"Radiometric correction of multitemporal thematic mapper data for use in agricultural landcover classification and vegetation monitoring","volume":"12","author":"Hill","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2774","DOI":"10.3390\/s8042774","article-title":"Relative radiometric normalization and atmospheric correction of a SPOT 5 time series","volume":"8","author":"Lafrance","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(88)90116-2","article-title":"Radiometric scene normalisation using pseudoinvariant features","volume":"26","author":"Schott","year":"1988","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1515","article-title":"Automated update of an irrigated lands GIS using SPOT HRV imagery","volume":"56","author":"Eckhardt","year":"1990","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1255","article-title":"Relative radiometric normalization of Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data using an automatic scattergram-controlled regression","volume":"61","author":"Elvidge","year":"1995","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galiatsatos, N., Donoghue, D.N.M., Knox, D., and Smith, K (2007, January 18\u201320). Radiometric Normalisation of Multisensor\/Multitemporal Satellite Images with Quality Control for Forest Change Detection. Leuven, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/MULTITEMP.2007.4293077"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"173","article-title":"A standardized radiometric normalization method for change detection using remotely sensed imagery","volume":"66","author":"Heo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.06.024","article-title":"Landsat-7 ETM+ radiometric normalization comparison for northern mapping applications","volume":"95","author":"Olthof","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00169-3","article-title":"Classification and change detection using Landsat TM data: When and how to correct atmospheric effects?","volume":"75","author":"Song","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00256-5","article-title":"Change detection in shallow coral reef environments using Landsat 7 ETM+ data","volume":"78","author":"Andrefouet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.05.021","article-title":"A simple and effective radiometric correction method to improve landscape change detection across sensors and across time","volume":"98","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huber, P.J. (1981). Robust Statistics, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471725250"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rousseeuw, P.J., and Leroy, M.A. (1987). Robust Regression and Outlier Detection, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471725382"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Carvalho Junior, O.A., Guimar\u00e3es, R.F., Gomes, R.A.T., Carvalho, A.P.F., and Silva, N.C. (August, January 31). Normalization of Multi-temporal Images Using a New Change Detection Method based on the Spectral Classifier. Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3112473","article-title":"A new approach to change vector analysis using distance and similarity measures","volume":"3","author":"Gillespie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.10.024","article-title":"Automatic radiometric normalization of multitemporal satellite imagery","volume":"91","author":"Canty","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1109\/36.175340","article-title":"The impact of misregistration on change detection","volume":"30","author":"Townshend","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1109\/36.718860","article-title":"The effects of image misregistration on the accuracy of remotely sensed change detection","volume":"36","author":"Dai","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"967","article-title":"Relative radiometric normalization performance for change detection from multi-date satellite images","volume":"66","author":"Yang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(93)90013-N","article-title":"The Spectral Image Processing System (SIPS)\u2014Interactive visualization and analysis of imaging spectrometer data","volume":"44","author":"Kruse","year":"1993","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Carvalho J\u00fanior, O.A., and Meneses, P.R. (2000, January 23\u201325). Spectral Correlation Mapper (SCM): An Improving Spectral Angle Mapper. Pasadena, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/28.3-4.321","article-title":"Relations between two sets of variates","volume":"28","author":"Hotelling","year":"1936","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Borga, M. (1998). Learning Multidimensional Signal Processing. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Electrical Engineering, Link\u00f6ping University, Link\u00f6ping, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(97)00162-4","article-title":"Multivariate Alteration Detection (MAD) and MAF postprocessing in multispectral, bitemporal image data: New approaches to change detection studies","volume":"64","author":"Nielsen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00205-X","article-title":"Calibrating images from different dates to \u201clike-value\u201d digital counts","volume":"77","author":"Furby","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Press, W.H., Teukolsky, S.A., Vetterling, W.T., and Flannery, B.P. (2002). The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00127126","article-title":"Robust regression methods for computer vision: A review","volume":"6","author":"Meer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1974.10489233","article-title":"A robust method for multiple linear regression","volume":"16","author":"Andrews","year":"1974","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1974.10489171","article-title":"The fitting of power series, meaning polynomials, illustrated on band-spectroscopic data","volume":"16","author":"Beaton","year":"1974","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersen, R (2008). Modern Methods for Robust Regression. Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Sage Publications.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412985109"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilcox, R.R. (2012). Introduction to Robust Estimation and Hypothesis Testing, Academic Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-386983-8.00001-9"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/6\/2763\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:47:06Z","timestamp":1760219226000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/6\/2763"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,30]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5062763"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5062763","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,30]]}}}