{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,3]],"date-time":"2026-01-03T06:50:06Z","timestamp":1767423006026,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,10]],"date-time":"2013-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1373414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present study classified global Ecosystem Functional Types (EFTs) derived from seasonal vegetation dynamics of the GIMMS3g NDVI time-series. Rotated Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was run on the derived phenological and productivity variables, which selected the Standing Biomass (approximation of Net Primary Productivity), the Cyclic Fraction (seasonal vegetation productivity), the Permanent Fraction (permanent surface vegetation), the Maximum Day (day of maximum vegetation development) and the Season Length (length of vegetation growing season) variables, describing 98% of the variation in global ecosystems. EFTs were created based on Isodata classification of the spatial patterns of the Principal Components and were interpreted via gradient analysis using the selected remote sensing variables and climatic constraints (radiation, temperature, and water) of vegetation growth. The association of the EFTs with existing climate and land cover classifications was demonstrated via Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). The ordination indicated good description of the global environmental gradient by the EFTs, supporting the understanding of phenological and productivity dynamics of global ecosystems. Climatic constraints of vegetation growth explained 50% of variation in the phenological data along the EFTs showing that part of the variation in the global phenological gradient is not climate related but is unique to the Earth Observation derived variables. DCA demonstrated good correspondence of the EFTs to global climate and also to land use classification. The results show the great potential of Earth Observation derived parameters for the quantification of ecosystem functional dynamics and for providing reference status information for future assessments of ecosystem changes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5073305","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,10]],"date-time":"2013-07-10T10:56:10Z","timestamp":1373453770000},"page":"3305-3330","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Global Biogeographical Pattern of Ecosystem Functional Types Derived From Earth Observation Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Eva","family":"Ivits","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Land Resource Management Unit, European Commission Joint Research Centre, I-21027 Ispra, Italy"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Cherlet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Land Resource Management Unit, European Commission Joint Research Centre, I-21027 Ispra, Italy"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Horion","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Oster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen, Denmark"}]},{"given":"Rasmus","family":"Fensholt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Oster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen, Denmark"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5440.685","article-title":"Ecology\u2014International ecosystem assessment","volume":"286","author":"Ayensu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1890\/070062","article-title":"Putting people in the map: Anthropogenic biomes of the world","volume":"6","author":"Ellis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambin, E.F., and Geist, H.J. (2006). Land Use and Land Cover Change: Local Processes and Global Imoacts, Springer Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-32202-7"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2008.10.006","article-title":"Regional desertification: A global synthesis","volume":"64","author":"Hellden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Global Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.1075","article-title":"Monitoring and assessment of land, Degradation and desertification\u2014Towards new conceptual and integrated approaches","volume":"22","author":"Vogt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5020664","article-title":"Assessing land degradation\/recovery in the African Sahel from long-term earth observation based primary productivity and precipitation relationships","volume":"5","author":"Fensholt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2006.05.015","article-title":"Can human-induced land degradation be distinguished from the effects of rainfall variability? A case study in South Africa","volume":"68","author":"Wessels","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Gutman, G., and Janetso, A. (2004). Land Change Science: Observing, Monitoring and Understanding Trajectories of Change on the Earth\u2019s Surface, Springer."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1739.1992.610018.x","article-title":"Biodiversity and ecological redundancy","volume":"6","author":"Walker","year":"1992","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.2307\/3236276","article-title":"A functional classification for predicting the dynamics of landscapes","volume":"7","author":"Noble","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Veg. Sci"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.2307\/3237198","article-title":"Plant functional types and ecosystem function in relation to global change","volume":"8","author":"Diaz","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Veg. Sci"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-001-0037-9","article-title":"Current distribution of ecosystem functional types in temperate South America","volume":"4","author":"Paruelo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00037361","article-title":"Lags in adjustment of vegetation to climate caused by the pace of soil development: evidence from Britain","volume":"67","author":"Pennington","year":"1986","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.2307\/1942035","article-title":"Inertia in plant community structure: State changes after cessation of nutrient enrichment stress","volume":"5","author":"Milchunas","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1038\/341142a0","article-title":"Ecosystem-Level patterns of primary productivity and herbivory in terrestrial habitats","volume":"341","author":"McNaughton","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1038\/386698a0","article-title":"Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991","volume":"386","author":"Myneni","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2008.10.005","article-title":"Mediterranean desertification and land degradation: Mapping related land use change syndrimes based on satellite observations","volume":"64","author":"Hill","year":"2008","journal-title":"Global Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2020526","article-title":"phenological classification of the United States: A geographic framework for extending multi-sensor time-series data","volume":"2","author":"Gu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.11.010","article-title":"Ecosystem functional units characterized by satellite observed phenology and productivity gradients: A case study for Europe","volume":"27","author":"Ivits","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2442","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2112442","article-title":"Development and evaluation of phenological change indices derived from time series of image data","volume":"2","author":"McCloy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2030697","article-title":"Land-Cover phenologies and their relation to climatic variables in an anthropogenically impacted Mediterranean coastal area","volume":"2","author":"Koch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2102369","article-title":"Applicability of green-red vegetation index for remote sensing of vegetation phenology","volume":"2","author":"Motohka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2020388","article-title":"Phenological characterization of Desert Sky Island vegetation communities with remotely sensed and climate time series data","volume":"2","author":"Davison","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3020203","article-title":"Environmental drivers of NDVI-based vegetation phenology in Central Asia","volume":"3","author":"Kariyeva","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2012.03.010","article-title":"Combining satellite derived phenology with climate data for climate change impact assessment","volume":"88\u201389","author":"Ivits","year":"2012","journal-title":"Global Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.823","article-title":"Relationships among phenological growing season, time-integrated normalized difference vegetation index and climate forcing in the temperate region of eastern China","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3451","DOI":"10.1080\/014311699211499","article-title":"Surface phenology and satellite sensor-derived onset of greenness: An initial comparison","volume":"20","author":"Schwartz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s004840000054","article-title":"Trends in phenological phases in Europe between 1951 and 1996","volume":"44","author":"Menzel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1082750","article-title":"Climate-driven increases in global terrestrial net primary production from 1982 to 1999","volume":"300","author":"Nemani","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169008955174","article-title":"A phenological classification of terrestrial vegetation cover using shortwave vegetation index imagery","volume":"11","author":"Lloyd","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.2307\/2997510","article-title":"Biozones: Vegetation units defined by functional characters identifiable with the aid of satellite sensor images","volume":"2","author":"Soriano","year":"1992","journal-title":"Global Ecol. Biogeogr"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5010127","article-title":"Environmental and human controls of ecosystem functional diversity in temperate South America","volume":"5","author":"Paruelo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/153249802317304422","article-title":"Land degradation in the drylands","volume":"16","author":"Dregne","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arid Land Res. Manag"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1080\/014311600210065","article-title":"Arctic tundra functional types by classification of single-date and AVHRR bi-weekly NDVI composite datasets","volume":"21","author":"Stow","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-822X.2006.00215.x","article-title":"Identification of current ecosystem functional types in the Iberian Peninsula","volume":"15","author":"Paruelo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Global Ecol. Biogeogr"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s11258-008-9555-2","article-title":"Basline characterisation of major Iberian vegetation types based on the NDVI dynamics","volume":"202","author":"Cabello","year":"2009","journal-title":"Plant Ecol"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.09.001","article-title":"Ecosystem functioning of protected and altered Mediterranean environments: A remote sensing classification in Do\u00f1ana, Spain","volume":"114","author":"Paruelo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2317","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169508954561","article-title":"Absolute calibration of AVHRR visible and near-infrared channels using ocean and cloud views","volume":"16","author":"Vermote","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1109\/36.655330","article-title":"Estimation of the ratio of sensor degradation between NOAA AVHRR channels 1 and 2 from monthly NDVI composites","volume":"36","author":"Los","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/0273-1177(91)90402-6","article-title":"Global distribution of cloud cover derived from NOAA\/AVHRR operational satellite data","volume":"3","author":"Stowe","year":"1991","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4485","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500168686","article-title":"An extended AVHRR 8-km NDVI dataset compatible with MODIS and SPOT vegetation NDVI data","volume":"26","author":"Tucker","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, N.E., and Shen, S.P. (2005). Hilbert-Huang Transform and Its Applications, World Scientific. Interdisciplinary Mathematical Sciences;.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812703347"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.12.015","article-title":"Evaluation of Earth observation based global long term vegetation trends\u2014Comparing GIMMS and MODIS global NDVI time series","volume":"119","author":"Fensholt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens Environ"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/s100219900016","article-title":"Contrasting climatic controls on the estimated productivity of global terrestrial biomes","volume":"1","author":"Churkina","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-11-1633-2007","article-title":"Updated world map of the K\u00f6ppen-Geiger climate classification","volume":"11","author":"Peel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Nachtergaele, F., and Petri, M (2011). Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands: Mapping Land Use Systems at Global and Regional Scales for Land Degradation Assessment Analysis, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.2307\/3235884","article-title":"Measuring phenological variability from satellite imagery","volume":"5","author":"Reed","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Veg. Sci"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaiser, H.F. (1958). The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis. Psychometrika.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02289233"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00048870","article-title":"Detrended correspondence analysis, an improved ordination technique","volume":"42","author":"Hill","year":"1980","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(93)90079-W","article-title":"Standardization of weekly growing degree day accumulations based on differences in temperature observation time and method","volume":"66","author":"DeGaetano","year":"1993","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(94)02185-M","article-title":"Mathematical formulae for calculating the base temperature for growing degree days","volume":"74","author":"Yang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1086\/285067","article-title":"Climatic control of vegetation distribution: The role of the water balance","volume":"135","author":"Stephenson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. Nat"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/7\/3305\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:47:51Z","timestamp":1760219271000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/7\/3305"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,10]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5073305"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5073305","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,10]]}}}