{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T07:26:19Z","timestamp":1771485979295,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,20]],"date-time":"2013-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1384905600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coral reefs are complex, heterogeneous environments where it is common for the features of interest to be smaller than the spatial dimensions of imaging sensors. While the coverage of live coral at any point in time is a critical environmental management issue, image pixels may represent mixed proportions of coverage. In order to address this, we describe the development, application, and testing of a spectral index for mapping live coral cover using CASI-2 airborne hyperspectral high spatial resolution imagery of Heron Reef, Australia. Field surveys were conducted in areas of varying depth to quantify live coral cover. Image statistics were extracted from co-registered imagery in the form of reflectance, derivatives, and band ratios. Each of the spectral transforms was assessed for their correlation with live coral cover, determining that the second derivative around  564 nm was the most sensitive to live coral cover variations(r2 = 0.63). Extensive field survey was used to transform relative to absolute coral cover, which was then applied to produce a live coral cover map of Heron Reef. We present the live coral cover index as a simple and viable means to estimate the amount of live coral over potentially thousands of km2 and in clear-water reefs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5116116","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,20]],"date-time":"2013-11-20T13:39:23Z","timestamp":1384954763000},"page":"6116-6137","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Live Coral Cover Index Testing and Application with Hyperspectral Airborne Image Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Karen","family":"Joyce","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University,  Casuarina Campus, Darwin, NT 0810, Australia"},{"name":"Centre for Spatial Environmental Research, School of Geography, Planning,  and Environmental Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2605-6104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart","family":"Phinn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Spatial Environmental Research, School of Geography, Planning,  and Environmental Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Roelfsema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Spatial Environmental Research, School of Geography, Planning,  and Environmental Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Stoddart, D.R., and Johannes, R.E. (1978). Coral Reefs: Research Methods, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Jupp, D.L.B. (1986). The Application and Potential of Remote Sensing in the Great Barrier Reef Region, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Jupp, D.L.B., Heggen, S.J., Mayo, K.K., Kendal, S.W., Bolton, J.R., and Harrison, B.A. (1985). The BRIAN Handbook: An Introduction to Landsat and the BRIAN (Barrier Reef Image Analysis) Systems for Users, Institute of Biological Resources, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Australia."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"90","article-title":"Remote sensing: What can it offer coral reef studies?","volume":"29","author":"Kuchler","year":"1986","journal-title":"Oceanus"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"28","article-title":"Remote sensing of coral reefs","volume":"16","author":"Kuchler","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ascent"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/10106048609354064","article-title":"Coral reef remote sensing applications","volume":"4","author":"Kuchler","year":"1986","journal-title":"Geocarto Int"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.04.005","article-title":"Multi-sites evaluation of IKONOS data for classification of tropical coral reef environments","volume":"88","author":"Kramer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/014311698216521","article-title":"Benefits of water column correction and contextual editing for mapping coral reefs","volume":"19","author":"Mumby","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380050096","article-title":"Digital analysis of multispectral airborne imagery of coral reefs","volume":"17","author":"Mumby","year":"1998","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s002270050238","article-title":"Coral reef habitat-mapping: How much detail can remote sensing provide?","volume":"130","author":"Mumby","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mar. Biol"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00041-X","article-title":"Mapping marine environments with IKONOS imagery: Enhanced spatial resolution can deliver greater thematic accuracy","volume":"82","author":"Mumby","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70105","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0070105","article-title":"Ningaloo reef: Shallow marine habitats mapped using a hyperspectral sensor","volume":"8","author":"Kobryn","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodman, J.A., Purkis, S., and Phinn, S. (2013). Coral Reef Remote Sensing: A Guide for Multi-Level Sensing Mapping and Assessment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-9292-2"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3768","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2011.633122","article-title":"Multi-scale, object-based image analysis for mapping geomorphic and ecological zones on coral reefs","volume":"33","author":"Phinn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2010.513980","article-title":"Improving the synoptic mapping of coral reef geomorphology using object-based image analysis","volume":"25","author":"Leon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6367","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2013.800660","article-title":"Mapping coral reefs at reef to reef-system scales, 10 s\u20131000 s km2, using object-based image analysis","volume":"34","author":"Roelfsema","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00202-X","article-title":"Capabilities of remote sensors to classify coral, algae, and sand as pure and mixed spectra","volume":"85","author":"Hochberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1080\/014311699211921","article-title":"Hyperspectral identification of coral reef features","volume":"20","author":"Holden","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2003.48.1_part_2.0480","article-title":"A remote sensing method for resolving depth and subpixel composition of aquatic benthos","volume":"48","author":"Hedley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-003-0354-x","article-title":"Spectral unmixing of coral reef benthos under ideal conditions","volume":"23","author":"Hedley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Goodman, J.A., and Ustin, S.L. (2003, January 10\u201314). Airborne Hyperspectral Analysis of Coral Ecosystems in the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9673","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2011.574162","article-title":"Estimating the coverage of coral reef benthic communities from airborne hyperspectral remote sensing data: Multiple discriminant function analysis and linear spectral unmixing","volume":"32","author":"Hamylton","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4010271","article-title":"Environmental and sensor limitations in optical remote sensing of coral reefs: Implications for monitoring and sensor design","volume":"4","author":"Hedley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6329","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.37.006329","article-title":"Hyperspectral remote sensing for shallow waters. A semianalytical model","volume":"37","author":"Lee","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Opt"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.5589\/m09-037","article-title":"Evaluation of Landsat TM vegetation indices for estimating vegetation cover on semi-arid rangelands: A case study from Australia","volume":"35","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160310001620803","article-title":"Mapping leaf area index through spectral vegetation indices in a subtropical watershed","volume":"25","author":"Xavier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24937","DOI":"10.1029\/98JC02160","article-title":"Ocean color chlorophyll algorithms for SeaWiFS","volume":"103","author":"Maritorena","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franklin, S.E. (2001). Remote Sensing for Sustainable Forest Management, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420032857"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Edwards, A.J. (2000). Remote Sensing Handbook for Tropical Coastal Management, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-002-0249-2","article-title":"Discrimination of coral reflectance spectra in the Red Sea","volume":"21","author":"Chisholm","year":"2002","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049609354521","article-title":"Establishing a \u201cSPOT\u201d thematic neo-channel for the study of hard-of-access lagoon environments: Example of application on the growth area of the New Caledonian Reefs","volume":"11","author":"Bour","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geocarto Int"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Collin, A., Hench, J.L., and Planes, S. (2012, January 9\u201313). A Novel Spaceborne Proxy for Mapping Coral Cover. Cairns, QLD, Australia."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joyce, K.E., and Phinn, S.R. (2013). Spectral index development for mapping live coral cover. J. Appl. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.7.073590"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-011-0774-y","article-title":"Coral colonisation of a shallow reef flat in response to rising sea level: Quantification from 35 years of remote sensing data at Heron Island, Australia","volume":"30","author":"Phinn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-004-0382-1","article-title":"The cover of living and dead corals from airborne remote sensing","volume":"23","author":"Mumby","year":"2004","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Phinn, S.R., Joyce, K.E., and Roelfsema, C.M. (2012). Airborne Hyperspectral Image Data of Heron Reef, Australia, University of Queensland."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Mather, P., and Bennett, I. (1993). A Coral Reef Handbook, Surrey Beatty & Sons."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Roelfsema, C.M., Joyce, K.E., and Phinn, S.R. (July, January 28). Evaluation of Benthic Survey Techniques for Validating Remotely Sensed Images of Coral Reefs. Okinawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-003-0357-7","article-title":"Combining landsat ETM+ and reef check classifications for mapping coral reefs: A critical assessment from the southern great barrier reef, Australia","volume":"23","author":"Joyce","year":"2004","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2583","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169408954268","article-title":"An evaluation of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) digital data for discriminating coral reef zonation: Heron Reef (GBR)","volume":"15","author":"Ahmad","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Joyce, K.E., Phinn, S.R., Roelfsema, C., Neil, D.T., and Dennison, W.C. (2002, January 2\u20136). Mapping the Southern Great Barrier Reef using Landsat ETM and the Reef Check Classification Scheme. Brisbane, QLD, Australia."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-326X(99)00002-8","article-title":"A global assessment of human effects on coral reefs","volume":"38","author":"Hodgson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"76","article-title":"Weighing the costs and benefits of image acquisition and pre-processing for coral reef remote sensing","volume":"8","author":"Joyce","year":"2003","journal-title":"Position Mag"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Joyce, K.E. A. (2005). School of Geography, Planning and Architecture, University of Queensland."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2003.48.1_part_2.0489","article-title":"Hyperspectral analysis of chlorophyll content and photosynthetic capacity of coral reef substrates","volume":"48","author":"Joyce","year":"2003","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Hopley, D. (1982). The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Quaternary Development of Coral Reefs, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S77","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380050244","article-title":"Coral reef ecosystems: How much greater is the whole than the sum of the parts?","volume":"16","author":"Hatcher","year":"1997","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380000087","article-title":"Spectral discrimination of coral reef benthic communities","volume":"19","author":"Hochberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00201-8","article-title":"Spectral reflectance of coral reef bottom-types worldwide and implications for coral reef remote sensing","volume":"85","author":"Hochberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00029-7","article-title":"Spectral discrimination of healthy and non-healthy corals based on cluster analysis, principal components analysis, and derivative spectroscopy","volume":"65","author":"Holden","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wettle, M., Ferrier, G., Lawrence, A.J., and Anderson, K. (2003). Fourth derivative analysis of Red Sea coral reflectance spectra. Int. J. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000075945"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.3354\/meps017251","article-title":"Spatial patterns in coral reef benthos: Multiscale analysis of sites from three oceans","volume":"17","author":"Reichelt","year":"1984","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Mayo, K.K., Jupp, D.L.B., Heggan, S.J., and Kendall, S.W. (1985). Heron Island: Field Notes and Data Sheets, CSIRO Div. Water & Land Res. Tech. Mem."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Mather, P., and Bennett, I. (1993). A Coral Reef Handbook, Surrey Beatty & Sons."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roelfsema, C., and Phinn, S. (2010). Integrating field data with high spatial resolution multispectral satellite imagery for calibration and validation of coral reef benthic community maps. J. Appl. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3430107"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/11\/6116\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:50:46Z","timestamp":1760219446000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/5\/11\/6116"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,20]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs5116116"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs5116116","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,20]]}}}