{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T03:11:48Z","timestamp":1768705908131,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,20]],"date-time":"2015-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1432080000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, grid cell based spatial statistics were used to quantify the drivers of land-cover and land-use change (LCLUC) and habitat degradation in a tropical rainforest in Madagascar. First, a spectral database of various land-cover and land-use information was compiled using multi-year field campaign data and photointerpretation of satellite images. Next, residential areas were extracted from IKONOS-2 and GeoEye-1 images using object oriented feature extraction (OBIA). Then, Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) data were used to generate land-cover and land-use maps from 1990 to 2011, and LCLUC maps were developed with decadal intervals and converted to 100 m vector grid cells. Finally, the causal associations between LCLUC were quantified using ordinary least square regression analysis and Moran\u2019s I, and a forest disturbance index derived from the time series Landsat data were used to further confirm LCLUC drivers. The results showed that (1) local spatial statistical approaches were most effective at quantifying the drivers of LCLUC, and (2) the combined threats of habitat degradation in and around the reserve and increasing encroachment of invasive plant species lead to the expansion of shrubland and mixed forest within the former primary forest, which was echoed by the forest disturbance index derived from the Landsat data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70506257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,20]],"date-time":"2015-05-20T11:05:46Z","timestamp":1432119946000},"page":"6257-6279","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Remote Sensing Based Spatial Statistics to Document Tropical Rainforest Transition Pathways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Abduwasit","family":"Ghulam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sustainability, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63108, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Oghlan","family":"Ghulam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Chongqing University, 174 Shazhengjie, Shapingba, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maitiniyazi","family":"Maimaitijiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sustainability, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63108, USA"},{"name":"College of Management, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Karen","family":"Freeman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Madagascar Fauna and Flora Group, Kalinka, Lochearnhead FK19 8NZ, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ingrid","family":"Porton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Madagascar Fauna and Flora Group, 4065 Flora Place, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4241-6181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew","family":"Maimaitiyiming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sustainability, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63108, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1038\/35002501","article-title":"Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities","volume":"403","author":"Myers","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3008.2001.00201.x","article-title":"The biodiversity of madagascar: One of the world\u2019s hottest hotspots on its way out","volume":"35","author":"Ganzhorn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Oryx"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13723","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0704346104","article-title":"Evolution in the hypervariable environment of Madagascar","volume":"104","author":"Dewar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. 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