{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T11:06:00Z","timestamp":1770289560934,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,1]],"date-time":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1443657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study presents a point cloud de-noising and calibration approach that takes advantage of point redundancy in both space and time (4D). The purpose is to detect displacements using terrestrial laser scanner data at the sub-mm scale or smaller, similar to radar systems, for the study of very small natural changes, i.e., pre-failure deformation in rock slopes, small-scale failures or talus flux. The algorithm calculates distances using a multi-scale normal distance approach and uses a set of calibration point clouds to remove systematic errors. The median is used to filter distance values for a neighbourhood in space and time to reduce random type errors. The use of space and time neighbours does need to be optimized to the signal being studied, in order to avoid smoothing in either spatial or temporal domains. This is demonstrated in the application of the algorithm to synthetic and experimental case examples. Optimum combinations of space and time neighbours in practical applications can lead to an improvement of an order or two of magnitude in the level of detection for change, which will greatly improve our ability to detect small changes in many disciplines, such as rock slope pre-failure deformation, deformation in civil infrastructure and small-scale geomorphological change.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013029","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,1]],"date-time":"2015-10-01T10:07:14Z","timestamp":1443694034000},"page":"13029-13052","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":80,"title":["A 4D Filtering and Calibration Technique for Small-Scale Point Cloud Change Detection with a Terrestrial Laser Scanner"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Ryan","family":"Kromer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, 36 Union Street, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2391-6049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Abell\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, 36 Union Street, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada"},{"name":"Risk Analysis Group, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland"}]},{"given":"D.","family":"Hutchinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, 36 Union Street, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada"}]},{"given":"Matt","family":"Lato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BGC Engineering, 414 Princeton Ave., Ottawa, ON K2A 1B5, Canada"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"Edwards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian National Railway, 10229\u2013127 Avenue, Edmonton, AB T5E 0B9, Canada"}]},{"given":"Michel","family":"Jaboyedoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Risk Analysis Group, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F04014","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JF000642","article-title":"Patterns of precursory rockfall prior to slope failure","volume":"112","author":"Rosser","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2009.03.004","article-title":"Close-range terrestrial digital photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for discontinuity characterization on rock cuts","volume":"106","author":"Sturzenegger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3192","article-title":"Progressive failure of sheeted rock slopes: the 2009\u20132010 Rhombus Wall rock falls in Yosemite Valley, California, USA","volume":"37","author":"Stock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"697","article-title":"Spatio-temporal analysis of rockfall pre-failure deformation using Terrestrial LiDAR","volume":"11","author":"Jaboyedoff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"485","article-title":"Monitoring landslide displacements during a controlled rain experiment using a long-range terrestrial laser scanning (TLS)","volume":"37","author":"Travelletti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1003-2009","article-title":"Characterization and monitoring of the \u00c5knes rockslide using terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"9","author":"Oppikofer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"133","article-title":"Remote monitoring of a landslide using an integration of GB-INSAR and LIDAR techniques","volume":"37","author":"Lingua","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1087-2009","article-title":"LiDAR for monitoring mass movements in permafrost environments at the cirque Hinteres Langtal, Austria, between 2000 and 2008","volume":"9","author":"Avian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2813","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5062813","article-title":"Comparing two methods of surface change detection on an evolving thermokarst using high-temporal-frequency terrestrial laser scanning, Selawik River, Alaska","volume":"5","author":"Barnhart","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-935-2009","article-title":"Engineering monitoring of rockfall hazards along transportation corridors: using mobile terrestrial LiDAR","volume":"9","author":"Lato","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2015.05.012","article-title":"Identifying rock slope failure precursors using LiDAR for transportation corridor hazard management","volume":"195","author":"Kromer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2014.08.031","article-title":"Coseismic fault zone deformation revealed with differential lidar: Examples from Japanese Mw \u223c7 intraplate earthquakes","volume":"405","author":"Nissen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.11.006","article-title":"Lithological mapping of the Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus, using airborne LiDAR topographic data","volume":"114","author":"Grebby","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.2206","article-title":"Detection of surface change in complex topography using terrestrial laser scanning: application to the Illgraben debris-flow channel","volume":"36","author":"Densmore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.04.009","article-title":"Accurate 3D comparison of complex topography with terrestrial laser scanner: Application to the Rangitikei canyon (N-Z)","volume":"82","author":"Lague","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.08.012","article-title":"Uncertainty assessment of multi-temporal airborne laser scanning data: A case study on an Alpine glacier","volume":"127","author":"Joerg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2013.02.003","article-title":"Use of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) for monitoring and modelling of geomorphic processes and phenomena at a small and medium spatial scale in Polar environment (Scott River\u2014Spitsbergen)","volume":"212","author":"Kociuba","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning for detection of landfill gas: a pilot study","volume":"8","author":"Reshetyuk","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brook, A., Ben-Dor, E., and Richter, R. (2010, January 14\u201316). Fusion of hyperspectral images and LiDAR data for civil engineering structure monitoring. Hyperspectral Image and Signal Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing (WHISPERS), Reykjavik, Iceland.","DOI":"10.1109\/WHISPERS.2010.5594872"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-365-2009","article-title":"Detection of millimetric deformation using a terrestrial laser scanner: experiment and application to a rockfall event","volume":"9","author":"Jaboyedoff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2006.883527","article-title":"An adaptive contoured window filter for interferometric synthetic aperture radar","volume":"4","author":"Yu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.04.015","article-title":"Detailed rockslide mapping in northern Norway with small baseline and persistent scatterer interferometric SAR time series methods","volume":"114","author":"Lauknes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20144730","article-title":"InSAR decorrelation to assess and prevent volcanic risk","volume":"47","author":"Malinverni","year":"2014","journal-title":"EuJRS"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2009.02.014","article-title":"InSAR analyses of terrain deformation near the Wieliczka Salt Mine, Poland","volume":"106","author":"Perski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3673","article-title":"Multi-temporal UAV data for automatic measurement of rill and interrill erosion on loess soil","volume":"40","author":"Eltner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3425","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160601024234","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanner to detect landslide displacement fields: A new approach","volume":"28","author":"Teza","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.11.1265","article-title":"Influence of vegetation, slope, and lidar sampling angle on DEM accuracy","volume":"72","author":"Su","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3010167","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanner resolution: numerical simulations and experiments on spatial sampling optimization","volume":"3","author":"Pesci","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-010-0086-5","article-title":"Bias Correction for View-limited Lidar Scanning of Rock Outcrops for Structural Characterization","volume":"43","author":"Lato","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-267-2009","article-title":"Quantifying discontinuity orientation and persistence on high mountain rock slopes and large landslides using terrestrial remote sensing techniques","volume":"9","author":"Sturzenegger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.4.385","article-title":"Improvement of lidar data accuracy using lidar-specific ground targets","volume":"73","author":"Csanyi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.6028\/jres.069D.072","article-title":"Signal degeneration in laser beams propagated through a turbulent atmosphere","volume":"69D","author":"Beckmann","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. Sect. D: Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.7.793","article-title":"Impact of Lidar nominal post-spacing on DEM accuracy and flood zone delineation","volume":"73","author":"Raber","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20134605","article-title":"State of the art of ground and aerial laser scanning technologies for high-resolution topography of the earth surface","volume":"46","author":"Pirotti","year":"2013","journal-title":"EuJRS"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lichti, D., and Skaloud, J. (2010). Airborne and Terrestrial Laser Scanning, Whittles Publishing."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1109\/31.83870","article-title":"Center weighted median filters and their applications to image enhancement","volume":"38","author":"Ko","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"246","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning and digital photogrammetry techniques to monitor landslide bodies","volume":"35","author":"Bitelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1109\/34.121791","article-title":"A method of registration of three dimensional shapes","volume":"14","author":"Besl","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20134608","article-title":"Monitoring of large landslides by Terrestrial Laser Scanning techniques: Field data collection and processing","volume":"46","author":"Barbarella","year":"2013","journal-title":"EuJRS"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s12518-013-0119-3","article-title":"Vegetation filtering of waveform terrestrial laser scanner data for DTM production","volume":"5","author":"Pirotti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Innovmetric Polyworks 2014 IR15."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1145\/361002.361007","article-title":"Multidimensional binary search trees used for associative searching","volume":"18","author":"Bentley","year":"1975","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Teledyneoptech Ilris Terrestrial Laser Scanner Summary Specification Sheet; 2014."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"0742","article-title":"Correlation between thermal gradient and flexure-type deformation as a potential trigger for exfoliation-related rock falls (Invited)","volume":"43","author":"Collins","year":"2010","journal-title":"AGU Fall Meet. Abstr."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/10\/13029\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:49:37Z","timestamp":1760215777000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/10\/13029"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,1]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs71013029"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs71013029","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,1]]}}}