{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T08:42:00Z","timestamp":1770972120929,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,15]],"date-time":"2015-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1444867200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"State Key Program of National Natural Science of China","award":["41430855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41430855"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41401506"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41401506"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"973 Program of the National Basic Research Program of China","award":["2012CB417003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2012CB417003"]}]},{"name":"Key Program of Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["NIGLAS2012135001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIGLAS2012135001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lake level variation is an important hydrological indicator of water balance, biodiversity and climate change in drainage basins. This paper illustrates the use of moderate-resolution imaging spectroadiometer (MODIS) data to characterize complex water level variation in Poyang Lake, the largest freshwater lake in China. MODIS data were used in conjunction with in situ topographic data, otherwise known as the land-water contact method, to investigate the potential of this hybrid water level spatiotemporal variability measurement technique. An error analysis was conducted to assess the derived water level relative to gauge data. Validation results demonstrated that the land-water contact method can satisfactorily capture spatial patterns and seasonal variations in water level fluctuations. The correlation coefficient ranged from 0.684 to 0.835, the  root-mean-square-error from 0.79 m\u20131.09 m, and the mean absolute bias error from 0.65 m to 0.86 m for five main gauge stations surrounding the lake. Additionally, seasonal and interannual variations in the lake\u2019s water level were revealed in the MODIS-based results. These results indicate that the land-water contact method has the potential to be applied in mapping water level changes in Poyang Lake. This study not only provides a foundation for basic hydrological and ecological studies, but is also valuable for the conservation and management of water resources over gauge-sparse regions in Poyang Lake.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013466","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,15]],"date-time":"2015-10-15T12:44:06Z","timestamp":1444913046000},"page":"13466-13484","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Combining Multispectral Imagery with in situ Topographic Data Reveals Complex Water Level Variation in China\u2019s Largest Freshwater Lake"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Guiping","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Watershed Geographic Sciences, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 21008, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 21008, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8780-927X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuanbo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Watershed Geographic Sciences, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 21008, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 21008, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beeton, A.M. (2002). Large freshwater lakes: Present state, trends, and future. Environ. Conserv.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892902000036"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Tiner, R.W. (2005). Search of Swampland: A Wetland Sourcebook and Field Guide, Rutgers University Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2009.54.6_part_2.2273","article-title":"Lakes and reservoirs as sentinels, integrators, and regulators of climate change","volume":"54","author":"Williamson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Likens, G.E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, Academic Press, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012370626-3.00001-6"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(95)02691-H","article-title":"Recent lake-level and outflow variations at Lake Viljandi, Estonia: Validation of a coupled lake-catchment modelling scheme for climate change studies","volume":"170","author":"Vassiljev","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Kennedy, T.A. (2010). Levels at Gauging Stations: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods 3-A19, Available online: http:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/tm\/tm3A19\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1089802","article-title":"Tracking fresh water from space","volume":"301","author":"Alsdorf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1085(199708)11:10<1427::AID-HYP473>3.0.CO;2-S","article-title":"Satellite remote sensing of river inundation area, stage, and discharge: A review","volume":"11","author":"Smith","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsdorf, D.E., Rodriguez, E., and Letternmaier, D.P. (2007). Measuring surface water from space. Rev. Geophys.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006RG000197"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2008.04.008","article-title":"Estimating uncertainty associated with water stages from a single SAR image","volume":"31","author":"Schumann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois, C., Sylvain, B., Adalbert, A., Muriel, B.N., and M\u00e9lanie, B. (2015). Global surveys of reservoirs and lakes from satellites and regional application to the Syrdarya river basin. Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schumann, G., Bates, P.D., Horritt, M.S., Matgen, P., and Pappenberger, F. (2009). Progress in integration of remote sensing-derived flood extent and stage data and hydraulic models. Rev. Geophys.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008RG000274"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"4857","article-title":"A review of applications of satellite SAR, optical, altimetry and DEM data for surface water modeling, mapping and parameter estimation","volume":"12","author":"Musa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth. Syst. Sci. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.10.027","article-title":"Preliminary results of ENVISAT RA-2 derived water levels validation over the Amazon basin","volume":"100","author":"Frappart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.01.005","article-title":"Water-level changes in China\u2019s large lakes determined from ICESat\/GLAS data","volume":"132","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1080\/01490419.2014.1002590","article-title":"Use of SARAL\/AltiKa over mountainous lakes, intercomparison with Envisat mission","volume":"38","author":"Arsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Geod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-19-341-2015","article-title":"Satellite radar altimetry for monitoring small rivers and lakes in Indonesia","volume":"19","author":"Sulistioadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Intercomparison and validation of continental water level products derived from satellite radar altimetry","volume":"6","author":"Birkett","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-008-0289-7","article-title":"An absolute calibration site for radar altimeters in the continental domain: Lake Issykkul in Central Asia","volume":"83","author":"Romanovski","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.3319\/TAO.2012.10.09.01(TibXS)","article-title":"The performance of altimeter waveform retrackers at Lake Baikal","volume":"24","author":"Yi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frappart, F., Papa, F., Famiglietti, J.S., Prigent, C., Rossow, W.B., and Seyler, F. (2008). Interannual variations of river water storage from a multiple satellite approach: A case study for the Rio Negro River basin. J. Geophys. Res.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009438"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2007","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-18-2007-2014","article-title":"Combining high-resolution satellite images and altimetry to estimate the volume of small lakes","volume":"18","author":"Baup","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3596","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9469","article-title":"Remote sensing of river stage using the cross-sectional inundation area-river stage relationship (IARSR) constructed from digital elevation model data","volume":"27","author":"Pan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1080\/02626660109492852","article-title":"Monitoring wetland ditch water levels in the North Kent Marshes using Landsat TM imagery and ground-based measurements","volume":"46","author":"Leemhuis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-013-9269-4","article-title":"Observing global surface water flood dynamics","volume":"35","author":"Bates","year":"2014","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.06.008","article-title":"Space-based detection of wetland\u2019s detection of wetland\u2019s surface water level changes from L-band SAR interferometry","volume":"112","author":"Wdowinski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1038\/35004560","article-title":"Interferometric radar measurements of water level changes on the Amazon floodplain","volume":"404","author":"Alsdorf","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1029\/2001GL012962","article-title":"Water level changes in a large Amazon Lake measured with spaceborne radar interferometry and alimetry","volume":"28","author":"Alsdorf","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2013.2293492","article-title":"Multitemporal multitrack monitoring of wetland water levels in the Florida Everglades using ALOS PALSAR data with interferometric processing","volume":"11","author":"Hong","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2009.2033453","article-title":"Estimating river depth from remote sensing swath interferometry measurements of river height, slope, and width","volume":"3","author":"Durand","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE. J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"247","article-title":"Integration of SAR-derived inundation areas, high precision topographic data and a river flow model toward real-time flood management","volume":"9","author":"Matgen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth. Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2553","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600554397","article-title":"Remote sensing of water levels on floodplains: a spatial approach guided by hydraulic functioning","volume":"27","author":"Raclot","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2007.09.004","article-title":"Comparison of remotely sensed water stages from LiDAR, topographic contours and SRTM","volume":"63","author":"Schumann","year":"2008","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-13-567-2009","article-title":"Improved estimation of flood parameters by combining space based SAR data with very high resolution digital elevation data","volume":"13","author":"Zwenzner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Finlayson, M., Harris, J., McCartney, M., Lew, Y., and Zhang, C. (Report on Ramsar Visit to Poyang Lake Ramsar Site, PR China, 2010). Report on Ramsar Visit to Poyang Lake Ramsar Site, PR China, Report Prepared on behalf of the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1307","article-title":"Flood frequency in China\u2019s Poyang Lake region: Trends and teleconnections","volume":"26","author":"Shankman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Wu, G., and Zhao, X. (2013). Recent declines in China\u2019s largest freshwater lake: Trend or regime shift?. Environ. Res. Lett.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/1\/014010"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4511","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2014.916444","article-title":"Satellite-based detection of water surface variation in China\u2019s largest freshwater lake in response to hydro-climatic drought","volume":"35","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1057","article-title":"Annual dynamics of the wetland plants community in Poyang Lake in response to water-level variations","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Decharme, B., Douville, H., Prigent, C., Papa, F., and Aires, F. (2008). A new river flooding scheme for global climate applications: Off-line validation over South Amercia. J. Geophys. Res., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009376"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2010.11.017","article-title":"Water level fluctuations for managing excessive plant biomass in shallow lakes","volume":"37","author":"Paillisson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.11.027","article-title":"Effects of the Three Gorges Dam on Yangtze River flow and river interaction with Poyang Lake, China: 2003\u20132008","volume":"416","author":"Guo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.01.048","article-title":"Capturing variations in inundation with satellite remote sensing in a morphologically complex, large lake","volume":"523","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.05.051","article-title":"An investigation of enhanced recessions in Poyang Lake: Comparison of Yangtze River and local catchment impacts","volume":"517","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5767","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802060912","article-title":"Modelling spatial-temporal change of Poyang Lake using multitemporal Landsat imagery","volume":"29","author":"Hui","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.01.014","article-title":"Assessment of inundation changes of Poyang Lake using MODIS observations between 2000 and 2010","volume":"121","author":"Feng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-1-355-2014","article-title":"Study of morphologic change in Poyang Lake basin caused by sand dredging using multi-temporal Landsat images and DEMs","volume":"XL-1","author":"Qi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2007.05.003","article-title":"Effect of differing DEM creation methods on the results from a hydrological model","volume":"33","author":"Wise","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"111","article-title":"DEM generation from laser scanner data using adaptive TIN models","volume":"33","author":"Axelsson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogram. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.9.1081","article-title":"Quantifying DEM uncertainty and its effect on topographic parameters","volume":"72","author":"Wechsler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(91)90017-Z","article-title":"Normalized difference vegetation index measurements from the advanced very high resolution radiometer","volume":"35","author":"Goward","year":"1991","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169608948714","article-title":"The use of the normalized difference water index (NDWI) in the delineation of open water features","volume":"17","author":"McFeeters","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-005-3281-5","article-title":"Delineation of flood-prone areas using remote sensing techniques","volume":"19","author":"Jain","year":"2005","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9837(199904)24:4<283::AID-ESP950>3.0.CO;2-9","article-title":"Application of AVHRR to monitoring a climatically sensitive playa. Case study: Chottel Djerid, southern Tunisia","volume":"24","author":"Bryant","year":"1999","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Proc. Land."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5862","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2012.675452","article-title":"A physical explanation of the variation in threshold for delineating terrestrial water surface from multi-temporal images: Effects of radiometric correction","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Li, J., and Heap, A.D. (2008). A Review of Spatial Interpolation Methods for Environmental Scientists."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goovaerts, P. (1997). Geostatistics for Natural Resources Evaluation, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195115383.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Poyang Lake rises higher than alert level. Available online: http:\/\/www.chinadaily.com.cn\/photo\/2012-08\/13\/content_15670620_2.htm."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/10\/13466\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:50:09Z","timestamp":1760215809000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/10\/13466"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,15]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs71013466"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs71013466","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,15]]}}}