{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T11:00:18Z","timestamp":1778670018007,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,18]],"date-time":"2015-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1447804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Steep topographic reliefs and heavy vegetation severely limit visibility when examining geological structures and surface deformations in the field or when detecting these features with traditional approaches, such as aerial photography and satellite imagery. However, a light detection and ranging (LiDAR)-derived digital elevation model (DEM), which is directly related to the bare ground surface, is successfully employed to map topographic signatures with an appropriate scale and accuracy and facilitates measurements of fine topographic features. This study demonstrates the efficient use of 1-m-resolution LiDAR for tectonic geomorphology in forested areas and to identify a fault, a deep-seated landslide, and the regional cleavage attitude in southern Taiwan. Integrated approaches that use grayscale slope images, openness with a tint color slope visualization, the three-dimensional (3D) perspective of a red relief image map, and a field investigation are employed to identify the aforementioned features. In this study, the previously inferred Meilongshan Fault is confirmed as a NE\u2013SW-trending, eastern dipping thrust with at least a 750 m-wide deformation zone. The site where future paleoseismological studies should be performed has been identified, and someone needs to work further on this site. Signatures of deep-seated landslides, such as double ridges, trenches, main escarpments, and extension cracks, are successfully differentiated in LiDAR DEM images through the use of different visualization techniques. Systematic parallel and continuous lineaments in the images are interpreted as the regional cleavage attitude of cleavage, and a field investigation confirms this interpretation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71115443","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,18]],"date-time":"2015-11-18T10:35:12Z","timestamp":1447842912000},"page":"15443-15466","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Detecting and Characterizing Active Thrust Fault and Deep-Seated Landslides in Dense Forest Areas of Southern Taiwan Using Airborne LiDAR DEM"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3304-4777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rou-Fei","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 111, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ching-Weei","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yi-Hui","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tai-Chien","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Li-Yuan","family":"Fei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Geological Survey, MOEA, Taipei 235, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Wallace, R.E. (1986). Active Tectonics. Studies in Geophysics, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.02.024","article-title":"Geomorphology of Active Faulting and seismic hazard assessment: New tools and future challenges","volume":"237","author":"Silva","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2004.01.006","article-title":"Landslides triggered by the 23 November 2000 rainfall event in the Imperia Province, Western Liguria, Italy","volume":"73","author":"Guzzetti","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.09.033","article-title":"Landslide dynamics from high-resolution aerial photographys: A case study from the Western Carpathians, Slovakia","volume":"115","author":"Prokesova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.07.021","article-title":"Combining multiple change detection indices for mapping landslides triggered by typhoons","volume":"134","author":"Mondini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.12.013","article-title":"Using COSMO\/SkyMed X-band and ENVISAT C-band SAR interferometry for landslides analysis","volume":"119","author":"Bovenga","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00011-8","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning\u2014An introduction and overview","volume":"54","author":"Wehr","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.07.005","article-title":"Understanding earth surface processes from remotely sensed digital terrain models","volume":"113","author":"Tarolli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"172","article-title":"Uncertainty in assessing landslide hazard and risk","volume":"2","author":"Carrara","year":"1992","journal-title":"ITC J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-2-3-2002","article-title":"Impact of mapping errors on the reliability of landslide hazard maps","volume":"2","author":"Ardizzone","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(03)00164-8","article-title":"Objective landslide detection and surface morphology mapping using high-resolution airborne laser altimetry","volume":"57","author":"McKean","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1785\/0120090261","article-title":"LiDAR-assisted identification of an active fault near truckee, California","volume":"101","author":"Hunter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2008.02.012","article-title":"A fault scarp in an urban area identified by LiDAR survey: A Case study on the Itoigawa\u2013Shizuoka Tectonic Line, central Japan","volume":"101","author":"Kondo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.01.002","article-title":"Tectonic geomorphology of the San Andreas Fault zone from high resolution topography: An example from the Cholame segment","volume":"113","author":"Arrowsmith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.06.007","article-title":"Application of high resolution DEM data to detect rock damage from geomorphic signals along the central San Jacinto Fault","volume":"113","author":"Wechsler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L04301","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL042044","article-title":"Morphologic dating of fault scarps using Airborne Laser Swath Mapping (ALSM) data","volume":"37","author":"Hilley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.03.008","article-title":"High-resolution topography for understanding Earth surface processes: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"216","author":"Tarolli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunnungham, D., Grebby, S., Tansey, K., Gosar, A., and Kastelic, V. (2006). Application of airborne LiDAR to mapping seismogenic faults in forested mountainous terrain, southeastern Alps, Slovenia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL027014"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-010-9634-2","article-title":"Use of LIDAR in landslide investigations: A review","volume":"61","author":"Jaboyedoff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"37","article-title":"Hazard mapping of earthquake-induced deep-seated catastrophic landslides for different scenario earthquakes by Using LiDAR DEM and airborne resistivity data","volume":"1","author":"Kagamihara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Landslide Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Zachariasen, J. (2008). Detail mapping of the northern San Andreas Fault using LiDAR imagery, Final Technical Report National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2006.07.029","article-title":"Characterizing the Hsincheng active fault in northern Taiwan using airborne lidar data: Detailed geomorphic features and their structural implications","volume":"31","author":"Chan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.11.001","article-title":"Detection of subtle tectonic\u2013geomorphic features in densely forested mountains by very high-resolution airborne LiDAR survey","volume":"182","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2013.07.020","article-title":"Topographic precursors and geological structures of deep-seated catastrophic landslides caused by Typhoon Talas","volume":"201","author":"Chigira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"27","article-title":"Digital terrain representation methods and Red Relief Image Map","volume":"45","author":"Chiba","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Cartogr. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1071","article-title":"Red relief image map-new visualization method for three","volume":"37","author":"Chiba","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-1951(90)90188-E","article-title":"Geotectonic evolution of late Cenozoic arc-continent collision in Taiwan","volume":"183","author":"Teng","year":"1990","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-1951(96)00297-1","article-title":"Velocity of GPS stations in the Taiwan area","volume":"274","author":"Yu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shyu, J.B.H., Sieh, K., Chen, Y.G., and Liu, C.S. (2005). Neotectonic architecture of Taiwan and its implications for future large earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res., 110.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JB003251"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"71","article-title":"Microearthquake activity in southwestern Taiwan","volume":"3","author":"Yu","year":"1983","journal-title":"Bull. Inst. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonilla, M.G. (1975). A Review of Recently Active Faults in Taiwan. Open-File Report 75\u201341.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr7541"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2006.07.020","article-title":"Fault activity and lateral extrusion inferred from velocity field revealed by GPS measurements in the Pingtung area of southwestern Taiwan","volume":"31","author":"Hu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1","article-title":"On the laonunghsi fault\u2014A boundary fault between the paleogene and the neogene strata, Southern Taiwan","volume":"12","author":"Lin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bull. Cent. Geol. Survey"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"26","article-title":"Chiahsien [Explanatory Text of the Geologic Map of Taiwan 1\/50,000]","volume":"51","author":"Sung","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cent. Geol. Survey"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Central Geological Survey (2010). Generation and QAQC of LiDAR DEM in heavy disaster area induced by Typhoon Morakot in 2009. Cent. Geol. Survey Rep B, 9957, 208."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7582","article-title":"Suitability of LiDAR point density and derived landform curvature maps for channel network extraction","volume":"24","author":"Pirotti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orlandini, S., Tarolli, P., Moretti, G., and Dalla Fontana, G. (2011). On the prediction of channel heads in a complex alpine terrain using gridded elevation data. Water Resour. Res., 47.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010WR009648"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"257","article-title":"Visualizing topography by openness: A new application of image processing to digital elevation models","volume":"68","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2006.02.005","article-title":"Supervised Landform classification of Northeast Honshu from DEM- derived thematic maps","volume":"78","author":"Prima","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-1387-2011","article-title":"An objective approach for feature extraction: Distribution analysis and statistical descriptors for scale choice and channel network identification","volume":"15","author":"Sofia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Pike, R.J., Acevedo, W., and Thelin, G.P. (1988, January 15\u201318). Some topographic ingredients of a geographic information system. Proceedings of the International Geographic Information Systems Symposium, Arlington, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2014.11.004","article-title":"Fault slip and earthquake recurrence along strike-slip faults\u2014Contributions of high-resolution geomorphic data","volume":"638","author":"Zielke","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-7952(94)90039-6","article-title":"Deep-seated rockslide-avalanches preceded by mass rock creep of sedimentary rocks in the Akaishi Mountains, central Japan","volume":"38","author":"Chigira","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(03)00052-7","article-title":"Forecasting giant catastrophic slope collapse: Lessons from Vajont, northern Italy","volume":"54","author":"Kiburn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2005.06.039","article-title":"Forecasting hazard scenarios and implications for the evaluation of countermeasure efficiency for large debris avalanches","volume":"83","author":"Crosta","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2005.06.025","article-title":"A large rockslide-debris avalanche in cohesive soil at Pink Mountain, northeastern British Columbia, Canada","volume":"83","author":"Geertsema","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2009.03.005","article-title":"September 2005 rain-induced catastrophic rockslides on slopes affected by deep-seated gravitational deformations, Kyushu, southern Japan","volume":"108","author":"Chigira","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-7952(94)90040-X","article-title":"Deep-seated gravitational slope deformations, related landslides and tectonics","volume":"38","author":"Dramis","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agliardi, F., Crosta, G., and Zanchi, A. (2001). Structural constraints on deep-seated slope deformation kinematics. Eng. Geol., 83\u2013102.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(00)00066-1"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2012.10.022","article-title":"Recognition of large scale deep-seated landslides in forest areas of Taiwan using high resolution topography","volume":"62","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Asian. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.12657\/landfana.022.007","article-title":"How high-resolution DEM based on airborne LiDAR helped to reinterpret landforms: Examples from the Sudetes, SW Poland","volume":"22","author":"Migon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landf. Anal."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2013.11.007","article-title":"Developing sub 5-m LiDAR DEMs for forested sections of the Alpine and Hope faults, South Island, New Zealand: Implications for structural interpretations","volume":"64","author":"Langridge","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2013.07.024","article-title":"Slip vector analysis with high resolution t-LiDAR scanning","volume":"608","author":"Wiatr","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.04.026","article-title":"Slip distributions on active normal faults measured from LiDAR and field mapping of geomorphic offsets: An example from L\u2019Aquila, Italy, and impli-cations for modelling seismic moment release","volume":"237","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1213778","article-title":"Near- field deformation from the El Mayor-Cucapah earthquake revealed by differential LIDAR","volume":"335","author":"Oskin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2014.12.024","article-title":"Morphotectonic analysis of the long-term surface expression of the 2009 L\u2019Aquila earthquake fault (Central Italy) using airborne LiDAR data","volume":"644\u2013645","author":"Civico","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2009.02.014","article-title":"Co-seismic thrusting rupture and slip distribution produced by the 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake, China","volume":"471","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-6142(09)95002-1","article-title":"Chapter 2A Field Techniques in Paleoseismology\u2014Terrestrial Environments","volume":"95","author":"McCalpin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2005.05.043","article-title":"Fault scarps and deformation rates in Lazio-Abruzzo, Central Italy: Comparison between geological fault slip-rate and GPS data","volume":"408","author":"Papanikolaou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/11\/15443\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:52:19Z","timestamp":1760215939000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/11\/15443"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,18]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs71115443"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs71115443","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,18]]}}}