{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T11:26:36Z","timestamp":1774437996774,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,30]],"date-time":"2015-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1448841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Flood mapping, particularly hazard and risk mapping, is an imperative process and a fundamental part of emergency response and risk management. This paper aims to produce a flood risk proxy map of damaged rice fields over the whole of Bangladesh, where monsoon river floods are dominant and frequent, affecting over 80% of the total population. This proxy risk map was developed to meet the request of the government on a national level. This study represents a rapid, straightforward methodology for estimating rice-crop damage in flood areas of Bangladesh during the large flood from July to September 2007, despite the lack of primary data. We improved a water detection algorithm to achieve a better discrimination capacity to discern flood areas by using a modified land surface water index (MLSWI). Then, rice fields were estimated utilizing a hybrid rice field map from land-cover classification and MODIS-derived indices, such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and enhanced vegetation index (EVI). The results showed that the developed method is capable of providing instant, comprehensive, nationwide mapping of flood risks, such as rice field damage. The detected flood areas and damaged rice fields during the 2007 flood were verified by comparing them with the Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) AVNIR-2 images (a 10 m spatial resolution) and in situ field survey data with moderate agreement (K = 0.57).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71215805","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,30]],"date-time":"2015-11-30T10:57:24Z","timestamp":1448881044000},"page":"15969-15988","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Prompt Proxy Mapping of Flood Damaged Rice Fields Using MODIS-Derived Indices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Youngjoo","family":"Kwak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) under the auspices of UNESCO, 1-6 Minamihara, Tsukuba 305-8516, Japan"}]},{"given":"Bhuyan","family":"Arifuzzanman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Flood Forecasting &amp; Warning Center, Bangladesh Water Development Board, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh"}]},{"given":"Yoichi","family":"Iwami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) under the auspices of UNESCO, 1-6 Minamihara, Tsukuba 305-8516, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) (2004). Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction, UNISDR."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) (2014). World Disaster Report 2014-Data: Focus on Culture and Risk, IFRC."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Bank (2013). World Development Report 2014: Risk and Opportunity, Managing Risk for Development, World Bank."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S., and Palutikof, J.P. (2008). Climate Change and Water, IPCC Secretariat. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"UN General Assembly Available online: http:\/\/undocs.org\/A\/68\/970\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"UN General Assembly Available online: http:\/\/www.un.org\/millennium\/declaration\/ares552e.htm."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) (2009). The United Nations World Water Development Report 3: Water in a Changing World, Earth Scan. Available online: http:\/\/www.unesco.org\/water\/wwap\/wwdr\/wwdr3\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.3178\/hrl.6.70","article-title":"A new approach to flood risk assessment in Asia-Pacific region based on MRI-AGCM outputs","volume":"6","author":"Kwak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hofer, T., and Messerli, B. (2006). Floods in Bangladesh: History, Dynamics and Rethinking the Role of the Himalayas, United Nations University Press."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) (2014). Observed River Data and Reports of 1988, 1998, and 2004 Floods, Available online: http:\/\/www.bwdb.gov.bd."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), Flood Forecasting & Warning Centre (FFWC), 2014, Available online: http:\/\/www.ffwc.gov.bd."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"333","article-title":"Flood inundation map of Bangladesh using MODIS time-series image","volume":"99","author":"Islam","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.006","article-title":"Near-real time retrievals of land surface temperature within the MODIS rapid response system","volume":"106","author":"Pinheiro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (2015). Near Real-Time (NRT) Global MODIS Flood Mapping, Available online: http:\/\/oas.gsfc.nasa.gov\/floodmap\/."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (2007). Flooding in Bangladesh from the MODIS Rapid Response System, Available online: http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/NaturalHazards\/view.php?id=18492&eocn=image&eoci=related_image."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1029\/2003EO290001","article-title":"The need for global, satellite based observations of terrestrial surface waters","volume":"84","author":"Alsdorf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-012-0317-z","article-title":"Global mapping of storm surges, 2002-present and the assessment of coastal vulnerability","volume":"66","author":"Brakenridge","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.02.022","article-title":"Near real-time disturbance detection using satellite image time series","volume":"123","author":"Verbesselt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Dartmouth Flood Observatory (DFO) Dartmouth Atlas of Global Flood Hazard. Available online: http:\/\/www.dartmouth.edu\/~floods\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169608948714","article-title":"The use of the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) in the delineation of open water features","volume":"17","author":"McFeeters","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00067-3","article-title":"NDWI\u2014A normalized difference water index for remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space","volume":"58","author":"Gao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.11.008","article-title":"Satellite-based modeling of gross primary production in an evergreen needle leaf forest","volume":"89","author":"Xiao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3987","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802575653","article-title":"Land Surface Water Index (LSWI) response to rainfall and NDVI using the MODIS Vegetation Index product","volume":"31","author":"Chandrasekar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2284607","article-title":"Near real-time flood volume estimating from MODIS time-series imagery in the Indus River basin","volume":"7","author":"Kwak","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-4-153-2004","article-title":"Estimation uncertainty of direct monetary flood damage to buildings","volume":"4","author":"Merz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-6-485-2006","article-title":"Flood-risk mapping: Contributions towards an enhanced assessment of extreme events and associated risks","volume":"6","author":"Kreibich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2493","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-13-2493-2013","article-title":"Review Article: Economic evaluation of flood damage to agriculture-review and analysis of existing methods","volume":"13","author":"Grelot","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Rouse, J.W., Haas, R.H., Schell, J.A., and Deering, D.W. (1973, January 10\u201314). Monitoring vegetation systems in the Great Plains with ERTS. Proceedings of the Third ERTS Symposium, NASA SP-351 I, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00150-4","article-title":"Optical\u2013biophysical relationships of vegetation spectra without background contamination","volume":"74","author":"Gao","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90018-3","article-title":"Development of vegetation and soil indices for MODIS-EOS","volume":"49","author":"Huete","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2012.03.012","article-title":"An evaluation of MODIS 8- and 16-day composite products for monitoring maize green leaf area index","volume":"161","author":"Gitelson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00096-2","article-title":"Overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the MODIS vegetation indices","volume":"83","author":"Huete","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.75.11.1307","article-title":"Analysis of dynamic thresholds for the normalized difference water index","volume":"75","author":"Ji","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2020562","article-title":"Value of using different vegetative indices to quantify agricultural crop characteristics at different growth stages under varying management practices","volume":"2","author":"Hatfield","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"13","article-title":"Detection and estimation of mixed paddy rice cropping patterns with MODIS data","volume":"13","author":"Peng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) (2011). Agriculture Wing, Annual Report."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) (2012). Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1504\/IJW.2005.007159","article-title":"The effects of surface water abstraction for rice irrigation on floodplain fish production in Bangladesh","volume":"3","author":"Shankar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Water"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"World Food Program (WFP) (2010). Bangladesh Food Security Monitoring Bulletin, WFP. Issue No. 2."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center. US Geological Survey Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/17538940902951401","article-title":"A New Global Raster Water Mask at 250 Meter Resolution","volume":"2","author":"Carroll","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"99","article-title":"Production of global land cover data\u2014GLCNMO2008","volume":"6","author":"Tateishi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Geol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Siebert, S., Henrich, V., Frenken, K., and Burke, J. (2013). Global Map of Irrigation Areas Version 5, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/nr\/water\/aquastat\/irrigationmap\/index10.stm."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-9-535-2005","article-title":"Development and validation of the global map of irrigation areas","volume":"9","author":"Siebert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) The Advanced Land Observing Satellite \u201cDAICHI\u201d (ALOS). Available online: http:\/\/global.jaxa.jp\/projects\/sat\/alos\/."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Lehner, B., Verdin, K., and Jarvis, A. HydroSHEDS, Technical Documentation V1.0, World Wildlife Fund US, 2006, Available online: http:\/\/hydrosheds.cr.usgs.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., and Davis, I. (1994). At Risk: Natural Hazards, Peoples Vulnerability and Disasters, Routledge, Tayslor & Francis books.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203428764"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1149-2009","article-title":"Assessing global exposure and vulnerability to-wards natural hazards: The disaster risk index","volume":"9","author":"Peduzzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2004). Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development, Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery. A Global Report."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.2307\/2529310","article-title":"The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and World Food Program (WFP) (2008). Crop and Food Supply Assessemnt Mission to Bangladesh, FAO. Special Report."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.09.007","article-title":"Spatio\u2013temporal distribution of rice phenology and cropping systems in the Mekong Delta with special reference to the seasonal water flow of the Mekong and Bassac rivers","volume":"100","author":"Sakamoto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/12\/15805\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:53:01Z","timestamp":1760215981000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/7\/12\/15805"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,30]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs71215805"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs71215805","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,30]]}}}