{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:26:00Z","timestamp":1760243160665,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,16]],"date-time":"2015-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1450224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We report on spectral reflectance measurements of basaltic lava flows on Tenerife Island, Spain. Lava flow surfaces of different ages, surface roughness and elevations were systematically measured using a field spectroradiometer operating in the range of 350\u20132500 nm. Surface roughness, oxidation and lichen coverage were documented at each measured site. Spectral properties vary with age and morphology of lava. Pre-historical lavas with no biological coverage show a prominent increase in spectral reflectance in the 400\u2013760 nm range and a decrease in the 2140\u20132210 nm range. P\u0101hoehoe surfaces have higher reflectance values than \u02bba\u02bb\u0101 ones and attain a maximum reflectance at wavelengths &lt; 760 nm. Lichen-covered lavas are characterized by multiple lichen-related absorption and reflection features. We demonstrate that oxidation and lichen growth are two major factors controlling spectra of Tenerife lava surfaces and, therefore, propose an oxidation index and a lichen index to quantify surface alterations of lava flows: (1) the oxidation index is based on the increase of the slope of the spectral profile from blue to red as the field-observed oxidation level strengthens; and (2) the lichen index is based on the spectral reflectance in the 1660\u20131725 nm range, which proves to be highly correlated with lichen coverage documented in the field. The two spectral indices are applied to Landsat ETM+ and Hyperion imagery of the study area for mapping oxidation and lichen coverage on lava surfaces, respectively. Hyperion is shown to be capable of discriminating different volcanic surfaces, i.e., tephra vs. lava and oxidized lava vs. lichen-covered lava. Our study highlights the value of field spectroscopic measurements to aid interpretation of lava flow characterization using satellite images and of the effects of environmental factors on lava surface evolution over time, and, therefore, has the potential to contribute to the mapping as well as dating of lava surfaces.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71215864","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,16]],"date-time":"2015-12-16T10:11:27Z","timestamp":1450260687000},"page":"16986-17012","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Impact of Environmental Factors on the Spectral Characteristics of Lava Surfaces: Field Spectrometry of Basaltic Lava Flows on Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Long","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Earth System Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"},{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carmen","family":"Solana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Burnaby Building, Burnaby Road, Portsmouth PO1 3QL, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Frank","family":"Canters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cartography and GIS Research Group, Department of Geography, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Informatics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthieu","family":"Kervyn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Earth System Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"U.S. Geological Survey Types of Volcano Hazards, Available online: http:\/\/volcanoes.usgs.gov\/hazards\/index.php."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Papale, P. 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