{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T18:09:18Z","timestamp":1775239758075,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,12]],"date-time":"2016-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1452556800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Satellite monitoring of thermal stress on coral reefs has become an essential component of reef management practice around the world. A recent development by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\u2019s Coral Reef Watch (NOAA CRW) program provides daily global monitoring at 5 km resolution\u2014at or near the scale of most coral reefs. In this paper, we introduce two new monitoring products in the CRW Decision Support System for coral reef management: Regional Virtual Stations, a regional synthesis of thermal stress conditions, and Seven-day Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Trend, describing recent changes in temperature at each location. We describe how these products provided information in support of management activities prior to, during and after the 2014 thermal stress event in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). Using in situ survey data from this event, we undertake the first quantitative comparison between 5 km satellite monitoring products and coral bleaching observations. Analysis of coral community characteristics, historical temperature conditions and thermal stress revealed a strong influence of coral biodiversity in the patterns of observed bleaching. This resulted in a model based on thermal stress and generic richness that explained 97% of the variance in observed bleaching. These findings illustrate the importance of using local benthic characteristics to interpret the level of impact from thermal stress exposure. In an era of continuing climate change, accurate monitoring of thermal stress and prediction of coral bleaching are essential for stakeholders to direct resources to the most effective management actions to conserve coral reefs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8010059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,12]],"date-time":"2016-01-12T10:19:25Z","timestamp":1452593965000},"page":"59","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":110,"title":["Validation of Reef-Scale Thermal Stress Satellite Products for Coral Bleaching Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Scott","family":"Heron","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"},{"name":"Marine Geophysical Laboratory, Physics Department, College of Science, Technology and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia"}]},{"given":"Lyza","family":"Johnston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNMI Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Division of Coastal Resources Management, Saipan, MP 96950, USA"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}]},{"given":"Erick","family":"Geiger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Maynard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SymbioSeas and Marine Applied Research Center, Wilmington, NC 28411, USA"},{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Excellence \u00abCORAIL\u00bb USR 3278 CNRS\u2014EPHE, CRIOBE, Papetoai, Moorea 98729, French Polynesia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9070-1502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacqueline","family":"De La Cour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNMI Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Division of Coastal Resources Management, Saipan, MP 96950, USA"}]},{"given":"Ryan","family":"Okano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNMI Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Division of Coastal Resources Management, Saipan, MP 96950, USA"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Benavente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNMI Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Division of Coastal Resources Management, Saipan, MP 96950, USA"}]},{"given":"Timothy","family":"Burgess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Iguel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNMI Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Division of Coastal Resources Management, Saipan, MP 96950, USA"}]},{"given":"Denise","family":"Perez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNMI Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Division of Coastal Resources Management, Saipan, MP 96950, USA"},{"name":"Remote Sensing Research Centre, School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Management, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Skirving","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}]},{"given":"Alan","family":"Strong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}]},{"given":"Kyle","family":"Tirak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"},{"name":"Global Science and Technology, Inc., Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5987-0858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Eakin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coral Reef Watch, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandt, M.E., Smith, T.B., Correa, A.M.S., and Vega-Thurber, R. (2013). Disturbance driven colony fragmentation as a driver of a coral disease outbreak. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0057164"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eakin, C.M., Morgan, J.A., Heron, S.F., Smith, T.B., Liu, G., Alvarez-Filip, L., Baca, B., Bartels, E., Bastidas, C., and Bouchon, C. (2010). Caribbean corals in crisis: Record thermal stress, bleaching, and mortality in 2005. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0013969"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1029\/2003EO150001","article-title":"Remote sensing of sea surface temperature during 2002 Barrier Reef coral bleaching","volume":"84","author":"Liu","year":"2003","journal-title":"EOS Trans. AGU"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Liu, G., Strong, A.E., Skirving, W., and Arzayus, L.F. (July, January 28). Overview of NOAA Coral Reef Watch program\u2019s near-real time satellite global coral bleaching monitoring activities. Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium, Okinawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Liu, G., Eakin, C.M., Rauenzahn, J.L., Christensen, T.R.L., Heron, S.F., Li, J., Skirving, W., Strong, A.E., and Burgess, T. (2012, January 9\u201313). NOAA Coral Reef Watch\u2019s Decision Support System for coral reef management. Proceedings of the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moore, J.A.Y., Bellchambers, L.M., Depczynski, M.R., Evans, R.D., Evans, S.N., Field, S.N., Friedman, K.J., Gilmour, J.P., Holmes, T.H., and Middlebrook, R. (2012). Unprecedented mass bleaching and loss of coral across 12\u00b0 of latitude in Western Australia in 2010\u20132011. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051807"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richardson, L.L., and LeDrew, E.F. (2006). Remote Sensing of Aquatic Coastal Ecosystem Processes: Science and Management Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-3968-9"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Thomas, C.R., and Heron, S.F. (2011). South-East Asia Coral Bleaching Rapid Response: Final Report, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Marshall, P., and Schuttenberg, H. (2006). A Reef Manager\u2019s Guide to Coral Bleaching."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Heron, S.F., Pressey, R.L., Skirving, W.J., Rauenzahn, J.L., Parker, B.A.A., and Eakin, C.M. (2012, January 9\u201313). Identifying oceanic thermal anomalies in the Coral Triangle Region. Proceedings of the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lough, J., and van Oppen, M. (2009). Coral Bleaching: Patterns, Processes, Causes and Consequences, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-69775-6"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Liu, G., Rauenzahn, J.L., Heron, S.F., Eakin, C.M., Skirving, W.J., Christensen, T.R.L., Strong, A.E., and Li, J. (2013). NOAA Coral Reef Watch 50 km Satellite Sea Surface Temperature-Based Decision Support System for Coral Bleaching Management, NOAA\/NESDIS. NOAA Technical Report NESDIS 143."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11579","DOI":"10.3390\/rs61111579","article-title":"Reef-scale thermal stress monitoring of coral ecosystems: New 5-km global products from NOAA Coral Reef Watch","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Heron, S.F., Liu, G., Eakin, C.M., Skirving, W.J., Muller-Karger, F.E., Vega-Rodriguez, M., De La Cour, J.L., Burgess, T.F.R., Strong, A.E., and Geiger, E.F. (2015). Climatology Development for NOAA Coral Reef Watch\u2019s 5-km Product Suite, NOAA\/NESDIS. NOAA Technical Report NESDIS 145."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barale, V., Gower, J.F.R., and Alberotanza, L. (2010). Oceanography from Space: Revisited, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-8681-5"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"NOAA Coral Reef Watch Bleaching Alert Area for 13 August 2014 Displayed in Google Maps, Available online: http:\/\/coralreefwatch.noaa.gov\/vs\/map.php."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"UNEP-WCMC, WorldFish Centre, WRI, and TNC (2010). Global Distribution of Warm-Water Coral Reefs, Compiled from Multiple Sources Including the Millennium Coral Reef Mapping Project. Version 1.3, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"UNEP\/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies, IUCN."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"UNEP\/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies, IUCN."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Eakin, C.M., Liu, G., Chen, M., and Kumar, A. (2012, January 9\u201313). Ghost of bleaching future: Seasonal outlooks from NOAA\u2019s operational Climate Forecast System. Proceedings of the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2005.11.009","article-title":"Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A visual basic program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology","volume":"32","author":"Kohler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1353\/psc.2006.0005","article-title":"Coral reef benthic video surveys facilitate long-term monitoring in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Toward an optimal sampling strategy","volume":"60","author":"Houk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pac. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Veron, J.E.N. (2000). Corals of the World, Australian Institute of Marine Science."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2015.09.001","article-title":"Assessing relative resilience potential of coral reefs to inform management","volume":"192","author":"Maynard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richards, Z.T., and Hobbs, J.-P.A. (2014). Predicting coral species richness: The effect of input variables, diversity and scale. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0083965"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guest, J.R., Baird, A.H., Maynard, J.A., Muttaqin, E., Edwards, A.J., Campbell, S.J., Yewdall, K., Affendi, Y.A., and Chou, L.M. (2012). Contrasting patterns of coral bleaching susceptibility in 2010 suggest an adaptive response to thermal stress. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033353"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McClanahan, T.R., Donner, S.D., Maynard, J.A., MacNeil, M.A., Graham, N.A.J., Maina, G., Baker, A.C., Alemu I., G.B., Beger, M., and Campbell, S.G. (2012). Prioritizing key resilience indicators to support coral reef management in a changing climate. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0042884"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Johnson, L. Personal Communication."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enochs, I.C., Manzello, D.P., Donham, E.M., Kolodziej, G., Okano, R., Johnston, L., Young, C., Iguel, J., Edwards, C.B., and Fox, M.D. (2015). Shift from coral to macroalgae dominance on a volcanically acidified reef. Nat. Clim. Chang.","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2758"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noonan, S.H.C., and Fabricius, K.E. (2015). Ocean acidification affects productivity but not the severity of thermal bleaching in some tropical corals. ICES J. Mar. Sci.","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsv127"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-014-1139-0","article-title":"Unprecedented coral bleaching across the Marianas archipelago","volume":"33","author":"Reynolds","year":"2014","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-008-1015-y","article-title":"Major bleaching events can lead to increased thermal tolerance in corals","volume":"155","author":"Maynard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L05603","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL032175","article-title":"ReefTemp: An interactive monitoring system for coral bleaching using high-resolution SST and improved stress predictors","volume":"35","author":"Maynard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/1\/59\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:17:36Z","timestamp":1760210256000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/1\/59"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,12]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8010059"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8010059","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,12]]}}}