{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T19:05:04Z","timestamp":1785179104805,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,28]],"date-time":"2016-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1453939200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We developed a method that analyzes the quality of the cultivated cropland class mapped in the USA National Land Cover Database (NLCD) 2006. The method integrates multiple geospatial datasets and a Multi Index Integrated Change Analysis (MIICA) change detection method that captures spectral changes to identify the spatial distribution and magnitude of potential commission and omission errors for the cultivated cropland class in NLCD 2006. The majority of the commission and omission errors in NLCD 2006 are in areas where cultivated cropland is not the most dominant land cover type. The errors are primarily attributed to the less accurate training dataset derived from the National Agricultural Statistics Service Cropland Data Layer dataset. In contrast, error rates are low in areas where cultivated cropland is the dominant land cover. Agreement between model-identified commission errors and independently interpreted reference data was high (79%). Agreement was low (40%) for omission error comparison. The majority of the commission errors in the NLCD 2006 cultivated crops were confused with low-intensity developed classes, while the majority of omission errors were from herbaceous and shrub classes. Some errors were caused by inaccurate land cover change from misclassification in NLCD 2001 and the subsequent land cover post-classification process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8020101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,28]],"date-time":"2016-01-28T10:31:20Z","timestamp":1453977080000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["An Assessment of the Cultivated Cropland Class of NLCD 2006 Using a Multi-Source and Multi-Criteria Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Patrick","family":"Danielson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies (SGT), Contractor to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD 57198, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Limin","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies (SGT), Contractor to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD 57198, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suming","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"InuTeq, Contractor to the USGS EROS Center, Sioux Falls, SD 57198, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Collin","family":"Homer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USGS EROS Center, Sioux Falls, SD 57198, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darrell","family":"Napton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-004-0392-2","article-title":"Natural and anthropogenic climate change\u2014Incorporating historical land cover change, vegetation dynamics and the global carbon cycle","volume":"22","author":"Matthews","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1111772","article-title":"Global consequences of land use","volume":"309","author":"Foley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20666","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0704119104","article-title":"The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability","volume":"104","author":"Turner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"337","article-title":"Completion of the 2001 National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States","volume":"73","author":"Homer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"858","article-title":"Completion of the 2006 National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States","volume":"77","author":"Fry","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"346","article-title":"Completion of the 2011 National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States\u2014Representing a decade of land cover change information","volume":"81","author":"Homer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1201","article-title":"The 2009 Cropland Data Layer","volume":"76","author":"Johnson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4134","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1215404110","article-title":"Recent land use change in the Western Corn Belt threatens grasslands and wetlands","volume":"110","author":"Wright","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lark, T.J., Meghan Salmon, J., and Gibbs, H.K. (2015). Cropland expansion outpaces agricultural and biofuel policies in the United States. Environ. Res. Lett., 10.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/10\/4\/044003"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Faber, S., Rundquist, S., and Male, T. (2012). Plowed Under\u2014How Crop Subsidies Contribute to Massive Habitat Losses, Environmental Working Group. Available online: http:\/\/www.ewg.org\/node\/15941."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Cox, C., and Rundquist, S. Available online: http:\/\/www.ewg.org\/research\/going-going-gone."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-012-0365-x","article-title":"Wetland losses due to row crop expansion in the Dakota Prairie Pothole region","volume":"33","author":"Johnston","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-013-9947-0","article-title":"Agricultural expansion\u2014Land use shell game in the U.S. Northern Plains","volume":"29","author":"Johnston","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stern, A.J., Doraiswamy, P.C., and Hunt, E.R. (2012). Changes of crop rotation in Iowa determined from the United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service cropland data layer product. J. Appl. Remote Sens., 6.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.6.063590"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.80.6.537-549","article-title":"Annual crop type classification of the U.S. Great Plains for 2000\u20132011","volume":"80","author":"Howard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.12.001","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of NLCD 2006 land cover and impervious surface","volume":"130","author":"Wickham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.06.007","article-title":"Pixels, blocks of pixels, and polygons\u2014Choosing a spatial unit for thematic accuracy assessment","volume":"115","author":"Stehman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/23754931.2015.1009305","article-title":"Measuring cropland change: A cautionary tale","volume":"1","author":"Laingen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pap. Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(91)90048-B","article-title":"A review of assessing the accuracy of classifications of remotely sensed data","volume":"37","author":"Congalton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1109\/36.752215","article-title":"Maximizing land cover classification accuracies produced by decision trees at continental to global scales","volume":"37","author":"Friedl","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Fritz, L.W., and Lucas, J.R. (1992, January 2\u201314). Post-Classification of Misclassified Pixels by Evidential Reasoning\u2014A GIS Approach for Improving Classification Accuracy of RS Data. Proceedings of the XVIIth ISPRS Congress, Technical Commission VII: Interpretation of Photographic and Remote Sensing Data, Washington, DC, USA. Available online: http:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/XXIX\/congress\/part7\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.02.004","article-title":"Updating the 2001 National Land Cover Database land cover classification to 2006 by using Landsat imagery change detection methods","volume":"113","author":"Xian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.01.012","article-title":"A comprehensive change detection method for updating the National Land Cover Database to circa 2011","volume":"132","author":"Jin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Quinlan, J.R. (1993). C4.5 Programs for Machine Learning, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Concortium (MRLC) National Land Cover Database (NLCD), Available online: http:\/\/www.mrlc.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2011.562309","article-title":"Monitoring US agriculture\u2014The US Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Cropland Data Layer Program","volume":"26","author":"Boryan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2012.08.004","article-title":"A 2010 map estimate of annually tilled cropland within the conterminous United States","volume":"114","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Rogers, D.H., and Lamm, F.R. (2012, January 21\u201322). Kansas irrigation trends. Proceedings of the Annual Central Plains Irrigation Conference, 24th, Colby, KS, USA. Available online: http:\/\/www.k-state.edu\/irrigate\/oow\/cpic12.html."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/2\/101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:18:27Z","timestamp":1760210307000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/2\/101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,28]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8020101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8020101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,28]]}}}