{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T18:06:25Z","timestamp":1772215585666,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,25]],"date-time":"2016-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1456358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Basic Research Program of China","award":["2013CB733205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2013CB733205"]}]},{"name":"National Key Basic Research Program of China","award":["2013CB733204"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2013CB733204"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Time-series SAR\/InSAR techniques have proven to be effective tools for measuring landslide movements over large regions. Prior studies of these techniques, however, have focused primarily on technical innovation and applications, leaving coupling analysis of slope displacements and trigging factors as an unexplored area of research. Linking potential landslide inducing factors such as hydrology to SAR\/InSAR derived displacements is of crucial importance for understanding landslide deformation mechanisms and could support the development of early-warning systems for disaster mitigation and management. In this study, a sequential data assimilation method named the Ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), is adopted to explore the response mechanisms of the Shuping landslide movement in relation to hydrological factors. Previous research on the Shuping landslide area shows that the reservoir water level and rainfall are the two main triggering factors in slope failures. To extract the time-series deformations for the Shuping landslide area, Pixel Offset Tracking (POT) technique with corner reflectors was adopted to process the TerraSAR-X StripMap (SM) and High-resolution Spotlight (HS) images. Considering that these triggering factors are the primary causes of displacement fluctuations in periodic displacement, time-series decomposition was carried out to extract the periodic displacement from the POT measurements. The correlations between the periodic displacement and the inducing factors were qualitatively estimated through a grey relational analysis. Based on this analysis, the EnKF method was adopted to explore the response relationships between the displacements and triggering factors. Preliminary results demonstrate the effectiveness of EnKF in studying deformation response mechanisms and understanding landslide development processes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8030179","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,25]],"date-time":"2016-02-25T10:24:25Z","timestamp":1456395865000},"page":"179","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Landslide Deformation Analysis by Coupling Deformation Time Series from SAR Data with Hydrological Factors through Data Assimilation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0637-2978","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanan","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mingsheng","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3965-5453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiwei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Navigation Satellite System Research Centre, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xuguo","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5384-7630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1624-4697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Time","family":"Balz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(98)00038-6","article-title":"Rain-induced slope instability in Hong Kong","volume":"51","author":"Au","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schuster, R.L., and Highland, L. (2001). Socioeconomic and Environmental Impacts of Landslides in the Western Hemisphere.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr01276"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-009-0142-y","article-title":"Some catastrophic landslides since the twentieth century in the southwest of China","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-008-0128-1","article-title":"Movement of the shuping landslide in the first four years after the initial impoundment of the Three Gorges Dam reservoir, China","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2013.04.028","article-title":"Deep seated gravitational slope deformations in the European Alps","volume":"605","author":"Crosta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michoud, C., Baumann, V., Lauknes, T., Penna, I., Derron, M.H., and Jaboyedoff, M. (2015). Large slope deformations detection and monitoring along shores of the Potrerillos Dam reservoir, argentina, based on a small-baseline InSR approach. Landslides, 4.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0583-4"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Liu, C.Z., Liu, Y.H., Wen, M.S., Li, T.F., Lian, J.F., and Qin, S.W. (2009). Landslide Disaster Mitigation in Three Gorges Reservoir, China, Springer."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Arnaud, A., Adam, N., Hanssen, R., Inglada, J., Duro, J., Closa, J., and Eineder, M. (2003, January 21\u201325). ASAR-ERS interferometric phase continuity. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Toulouse, France."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Werner, C., Wegm\u00fcller, U., Strozzi, T., and Wiesmann, A. (2003, January 21\u201325). Interferometric point target analysis for deformation mapping. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Toulouse, France."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-008-0352-6","article-title":"The Coherent Pixels Technique (CPT): An advanced DInSAR technique for nonlinear deformation monitoring","volume":"165","author":"Duque","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3460","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2124465","article-title":"A new algorithm for processing interferometric data-stacks: SqueeSAR","volume":"49","author":"Ferretti","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2384","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.805079","article-title":"Glacier motion estimation using SAR offset-tracking procedures","volume":"40","author":"Strozzi","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-015-1071-4","article-title":"A user-oriented methodology for DInSAR time series analysis and interpretation: Landslides and subsidence case studies","volume":"172","author":"Notti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggu017","article-title":"Spatiotemporal characteristics of the Huangtupo landslide in the Three Gorges region (China) constrained by radar interferometry","volume":"197","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Daley, R. (1991). Atmospheric Data Analysis, Cambridge Atmospheric and Space Science Series, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"81","article-title":"Assimilation of observations, an introduction","volume":"75","author":"Talagrand","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evensen, G. (2009). Data Assimilation\u2014The Ensemble Kalman Filter, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-03711-5"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.06.026","article-title":"Experiments of one-dimensional soil moisture assimilation system based on Ensemble Kalman filter","volume":"112","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2010.03.012","article-title":"Data assimilation for distributed hydrological catchment modeling via ensemble kalman filter","volume":"33","author":"Xie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.03.017","article-title":"Landslide deformation monitoring using point-like target offset tracking with multi-mode high-resolution TerraSAR-X data","volume":"105","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Wang, L. (2014). Research of Recurrence Mechanism and Prediction of Shuping Landslide under Water Level Variation and Rainfall in Three Gorges Reservoir Area. [Master\u2019s Thesis, China Three Gorges University]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4791","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3764-x","article-title":"Application of wavelet analysis and a particle swarm-optimized support vector machine to predict the displacement of the shuping landslide in the Three Gorges, China","volume":"73","author":"Ren","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1672","article-title":"Time series analysis and support vector machine for landslide displacement prediction","volume":"47","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"382","article-title":"Diaplacement prediction of baishuihe landslide based on time series and pso-svr model","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3579","DOI":"10.1029\/96GL03042","article-title":"Two examples of the application of SAR interferomety to sites of small extent","volume":"23","author":"Carnec","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(02)00197-7","article-title":"Use of differential SAR interferometry in monitoring and modelling large slope instability at maratea (Basilicata, Italy)","volume":"68","author":"Berardino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2004.08.012","article-title":"On the application of SAR interferometry to geomorphological studies: Estimation of landform attributes and mass movements","volume":"66","author":"Catani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.04.015","article-title":"Detailed rockslide mapping in northern norway with small baseline and persistent scatterer interferometric SAR time series methods","volume":"114","author":"Lauknes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1029\/97RG03139","article-title":"Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the earth\u2019s surface","volume":"36","author":"Massonnet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6198","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5126198","article-title":"Landslide activity maps generation by means of Persistent Scatterer interferometry","volume":"5","author":"Bianchini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"253","article-title":"Using advanced InSAR time series techniques to monitor landslide movements in badong of the three gorges region, China","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31325-7_19","article-title":"Landslide mapping using SqueeSAR data: Giampilieri (Ialy) case study","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Raspini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landslide Science and Practice"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.03.003","article-title":"Evaluating sub-pixel offset techniques as an alternative to D-InSAR for monitoring episodic landslide movements in vegetated terrain","volume":"147","author":"Singleton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sassa, K., Canuti, P., and Yin, Y. (2014). Landslide Science for a Safer Geoenvironment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-05050-8"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14576","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71114576","article-title":"Exploitation of amplitude and phase of satellite SAR images for landslide mapping: The case of montescaglioso (south Italy)","volume":"7","author":"Raspini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"How second generation SAR systems are impacting the analysis of ground deformation","volume":"28","author":"Sansosti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Appl. Earth Obs."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2013.2256104","article-title":"Measuring coseismic displacements with point-like targets offset tracking","volume":"11","author":"Hu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"3843","article-title":"Measuring displacement field from TerraSAR-X amplitude images by subpixel correlation: An application to the landslide in Shuping, Tree Grges area","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Petrol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Seng, H.S. (2013, January 27\u201328). A new approach of moving average method in time series analysis. Proceedings of the New Media Studies (CoNMedia), Tangerang, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"746","article-title":"Study of displacement prediction model of landslide based on time series analysis","volume":"30","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2009.07.064","article-title":"Grey system theory-based models in time series prediction","volume":"37","author":"Kayacan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6911(82)80025-X","article-title":"Control problems of grey systems","volume":"1","author":"Deng","year":"1982","journal-title":"Syst. Control Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10143","DOI":"10.1029\/94JC00572","article-title":"Sequential data assimilation with a nonlinear quasi-geostrophic model using Monte Carlo methods to forecast error statistics","volume":"99","author":"Evensen","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1998)126<1719:ASITEK>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Analysis scheme in the ensemble Kalman filter","volume":"126","author":"Burgers","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1999)127<1374:CODAUA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Comment on data assimilation using an ensemble kalm$an filter technique","volume":"127","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2013.2255259","article-title":"Accuracy of Incoherent Speckle Tracking for Circular Gaussian Signals","volume":"11","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Chen, D., Xue, G., and Xu, F. (1997). Study on the Engineering Geology Properties in Three Gorges, Hubei Science and Technology Publisher."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6387","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903413713","article-title":"Landslide monitoring by corner reflectors differential interferometry SAR","volume":"31","author":"Fu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-004-0022-4","article-title":"Characteristics of rapid giant landslides in China","volume":"1","author":"Wen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F.W., Zhang, Y.M., Huo, Z.T., and Peng, X.M. (2009). Landslide Disaster Mitigation in Three Gorges Reservoir, China, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-00132-1"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Xia, Y. (2010). Sciences of Geodesy-I, Springer."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.10.1167","article-title":"Landslide monitoring in the Three Gorges area using D-InSAR and corner reflectors","volume":"70","author":"Xia","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tom\u00e1s, R., Li, Z., Lopez-Sanchez, J.M., Liu, P., and Singleton, A. (2015). Using wavelet tools to analyse seasonal variations from InSAR time-series data: A case study of the Huangtupo landslide. Landslides, 6.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0589-y"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2008.07.031","article-title":"Assessing the influence of environmental impact assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges project","volume":"90","author":"Tullos","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6955(01)00107-9","article-title":"The use of the orthogonal array with grey relational analysis to optimize the electrical discharge machining process with multiple performance characteristics","volume":"42","author":"Lin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-525-2014","article-title":"Application of GA-SVM method with parameter optimization for landslide development prediction","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JHM1065.1","article-title":"Validation of a dual-pass microwave land data assimilation system for estimating surface soil moisture in semiarid regions","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/3\/179\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:19:41Z","timestamp":1760210381000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/3\/179"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,25]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8030179"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8030179","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,25]]}}}