{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T10:49:40Z","timestamp":1784630980400,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,29]],"date-time":"2016-02-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1456704000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, six different periods of digital terrain model (DTM) data obtained from various flight vehicles by using the techniques of aerial photogrammetry, airborne LiDAR (ALS), and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) were adopted to discuss the errors and applications of these techniques. Error estimation provides critical information for DTM data users. This study conducted error estimation from the perspective of general users for mountain\/forest areas with poor traffic accessibility using limited information, including error reports obtained from the data generation process and comparison errors of terrain elevations. Our results suggested that the precision of the DTM data generated in this work using different aircrafts and generation techniques is suitable for landslide analysis. Especially in mountainous and densely vegetated areas, data generated by ALS can be used as a benchmark to solve the problem of insufficient control points. Based on DEM differencing of multiple periods, this study suggests that sediment delivery rate decreased each year and was affected by heavy rainfall during each period for the Meiyuan Shan landslide area. Multi-period aerial photogrammetry and ALS can be effectively applied after the landslide disaster for monitoring the terrain changes of the downstream river channel and their potential impacts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8030199","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,29]],"date-time":"2016-02-29T10:55:59Z","timestamp":1456743359000},"page":"199","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":78,"title":["Digital Elevation Model Differencing and Error Estimation from Multiple Sources: A Case Study from the Meiyuan Shan Landslide in Taiwan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5352-9261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu-Chung","family":"Hsieh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Geological Survey, MOEA, Taipei 235, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu-Chang","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5044-5225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jyr-Ching","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1213778","article-title":"Near-Field Deformation from the El Mayor\u2013Cucapah Earthquake Revealed by Differential LIDAR","volume":"335","author":"Oskin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nissen, E., Krishnan, A.K., Arrowsmith, J.R., and Saripalli, S. (2012). Three-dimensional surface displacements and rotations from differencing pre- and post-earthquake LiDAR point clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012GL052460"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glennie, C.L., Hinojosa-Corona, A., Nissen, E., Kusari, A., Oskin, M.E., Arrowsmith, J.R., and Borsa, A. (2014). Optimization of legacy LiDAR data sets for measuring near-field earthquake displacements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 41.","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL059919"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1130\/B30753.1","article-title":"Fault kinematics and surface deformation across a releasing bend during the 2010 MW 7.1 Darfield, New Zealand, earthquake revealed by differential LiDAR and cadastral surveying","volume":"125","author":"Duffy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3386","article-title":"Quantifying different riverbank erosion processes during an extreme flood event","volume":"38","author":"Grove","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1375","article-title":"Towards a protocol for laser scanning in fluvial geomorphology","volume":"32","author":"Heritage","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7661","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3939-5","article-title":"InSAR-derived digital elevation models for terrain change analysis of earthquake-triggered flow-like landslides based on ALOS\/PALSAR imagery","volume":"73","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.03.008","article-title":"High-resolution topography for understanding Earth surface processes: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"216","author":"Tarolli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2720","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5062720","article-title":"Landslide displacement monitoring using 3D range flow on airborne and terrestrial LiDAR data","volume":"5","author":"Ghuffar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2008.02.006","article-title":"Tracking landslide displacements by multi-temporal DTMs: A combined aerial stereophotogrammetric and LiDAR approach in western Belgium","volume":"99","author":"Dewitte","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2008.02.013","article-title":"Monitoring of the large slow Kahrod landslide in Alborz mountain range (Iran) by GPS and SAR interferometry","volume":"100","author":"Peyret","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2006.09.008","article-title":"Topographical changes revealed by high-resolution airborne LiDAR data: The 1999 Tsaoling landslide induced by the Chi\u2013Chi earthquake","volume":"88","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6021514","article-title":"Modeling accumulated volume of landslides using remote sensing and DTM data","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"67","article-title":"Topographic changes revealed by airborne LiDAR surveys in regions affected by the 2009 Typhoon Morakot, southern Taiwan","volume":"12","author":"Chan","year":"2012","journal-title":"West. Pac. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-433-2009","article-title":"Estimating mass-wasting processes in active earth slides\u2014Earth flows with time-series of High-Resolution DEMs from photogrammetry and airborne LiDAR","volume":"9","author":"Corsini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2014.12.020","article-title":"Landslide mobility and hazards: Implications of the 2014 Oso disaster","volume":"412","author":"Iverson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1592","article-title":"Application of a 3D laser scanner in the assessment of erosion and deposition volumes and channel change in a proglacial river","volume":"32","author":"Milan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(02)00320-3","article-title":"Methodological sensitivity of morphometric estimates of coarse fluvial sediment transport","volume":"53","author":"Brasington","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.07.007","article-title":"Tracking and evolution of complex active landslides by multi-temporal airborne LiDAR data: The Montaguto landslide (Southern Italy)","volume":"115","author":"Ventura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.02.014","article-title":"Step by step error assessment in braided river sediment budget using airborne LiDAR data","volume":"214","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.2234","article-title":"Multitemporal ALSM change detection, sediment delivery, and process mapping at an active earthflow","volume":"37","author":"DeLong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3351","article-title":"Kinematics of active earthflows revealed by digital image correlation and DEM subtraction techniques applied to multi-temporal LiDAR data","volume":"38","author":"Daehne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.08.024","article-title":"Combining airborne and terrestrial laser scanning for quantifying erosion and deposition by a debris flow event","volume":"138","author":"Bremer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.8.933","article-title":"Error assessment in two LiDAR-derived TIN datasets","volume":"72","author":"Peng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3454","article-title":"Application of a multi-temporal, LiDAR-derived, digital terrain model in a landslide-volume estimation","volume":"38","author":"Tseng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2009.01.005","article-title":"Landslide volumes and landslide mobilization rates in Umbria, central Italy","volume":"279","author":"Guzzetti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2007.07.015","article-title":"Distribution of landslides in the Upper Tiber River basin, central Italy","volume":"96","author":"Guzzetti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo776","article-title":"Landslide erosion controlled by hillslope material","volume":"3","author":"Larsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Central Weather Bureau (CWB), and R.O.C. Typhoon Database, Available online: http:\/\/rdc28.cwb.gov.tw\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Water Resources Agency, Ministry of Economic Affairs, and R.O.C. Water Resources Agency, Available online: http:\/\/eng.wra.gov.tw\/."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"The Aerial Survey Office, Forestry Bureau, and R.O.C. The ASO Historical Aerial Photogrammetry Database, Available online: http:\/\/www.afasi.gov.tw\/."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ministry of th Interior, and R.O.C. Establishment of The National Coordinate System, Available online: http:\/\/gps.moi.gov.tw\/SSCenter\/Introduce_E\/IntroducePage_E.aspx?Page=GPS_E8."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ministry of th Interior, and R.O.C. Taiwan Vertical Datum, Available online: http:\/\/gps.moi.gov.tw\/SSCenter\/Introduce_E\/IntroducePage_E.aspx?Page=Height_E4."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00014-3","article-title":"A comparison between photogrammetry and laser scanning","volume":"54","author":"Baltsavias","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00011-8","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning\u2014An introduction and overview","volume":"54","author":"Wehr","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Taylor, J.R. (1982). An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Measurements, Univ. Sci. Books."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.09.033","article-title":"Landslide dynamics from high-resolution aerial photographs: A case study from the Western Carpathians, Slovakia","volume":"115","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.09.015","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of airborne photogrammetrically derived high-resolution digital elevation models in a high mountain environment","volume":"98","author":"Thee","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.3.331","article-title":"Accuracy of airborne LiDAR-derived elevation: Empirical assessment and error budget","volume":"70","author":"Hodgson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.01.006","article-title":"Quantifying the time scale of elevated geomorphic response following wildfires using multi-temporal LiDAR data: An example from the Las Conchas fire, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico","volume":"232","author":"Orem","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"925","article-title":"Quantifying landscape change in an arctic coastal lowland using repeat airborne LiDAR","volume":"8","author":"Benjamin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2006.12.017","article-title":"Monitoring and modelling particle and reach-scale morphological change in gravel-bed rivers: Applications and challenges","volume":"93","author":"Rumsby","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1127\/0372-8854\/2013\/0110","article-title":"Topographic swath profile analysis: A generalization and sensitivity evaluation of a digital terrain analysis tool","volume":"57","author":"Telbisz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Z. Geomorphol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02187","article-title":"Decoupling of erosion and precipitation in the Himalayas","volume":"426","author":"Burbank","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2010.07.011","article-title":"Bedrock fracturing, threshold hillslopes, and limits to the magnitude of bedrock landslides","volume":"297","author":"Clarke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2008.08.024","article-title":"Morphological analysis of the drainage system in the Eastern Alps","volume":"460","author":"Robl","year":"2008","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-022","article-title":"Accuracy of a high-resolution LiDAR terrain model under a conifer forest canopy","volume":"29","author":"Reutebuch","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10707-006-0005-9","article-title":"LiDAR-derived high quality ground control information and DEM for image orthorectification","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"GeoInformatica"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.04.019","article-title":"In-flight photogrammetric camera calibration and validation via complementary LiDAR","volume":"100","author":"Gneeniss","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-1-W1-111-2013","article-title":"Reference LiDAR surfaces for enhanced aerial triangulation and camera calibration","volume":"1","author":"Gneeniss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810412331280130","article-title":"Production of integrated digital terrain model from multiple datasets of different quality","volume":"19","author":"Podobnikar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2785","DOI":"10.3390\/rs122785","article-title":"Application of a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) to the study of the S\u00e9chilienne Landslide (Is\u00e8re, France)","volume":"2","author":"Kasperski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-09054-2_8","article-title":"The Sediment Budgets Evaluation in a Basin Using LiDAR DTMs","volume":"Volume 3","author":"Tseng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Engineering Geology for Society and Territory"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1130\/B30306.1","article-title":"Sediment yield, spatial characteristics, and the long-term evolution of active earthflows determined from airborne LiDAR and historical aerial photographs, Eel River, California","volume":"123","author":"Mackey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/3\/199\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:19:54Z","timestamp":1760210394000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/3\/199"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,29]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8030199"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8030199","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,29]]}}}