{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T17:31:07Z","timestamp":1776101467166,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,16]],"date-time":"2016-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1458086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Research Committee\u2019s application for joint supervision scheme with Chinese mainland, Taiwan and Macao universities","award":["G-SB33"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G-SB33"]}]},{"name":"National Science and Technology Support Program of China","award":["2013BAK08B07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2013BAK08B07"]}]},{"name":"NASG Key Laboratory of Land Environment and Disaster Monitoring","award":["LEDM2014B05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LEDM2014B05"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The original intensity value recorded by terrestrial laser scanners is influenced by multiple variables, among which incidence angle and distance play a crucial and dominant role. Further studies on incidence angle and distance effects are required to improve the accuracy of currently available methods and to implement these methods in practical applications. In this study, the effects of incidence angle and distance on intensity data of the Faro Focus3D 120 terrestrial laser scanner are investigated. A new method is proposed to eliminate the incidence angle and distance effects. The proposed method is based on the linear interpolation of the intensity values of reference targets previously scanned at various incidence angles and distances. Compared with existing methods, a significant advantage of the proposed method is that estimating the specific function forms of incidence angle versus intensity and distance versus intensity is no longer necessary; these are canceled out when the scanned and reference targets are measured at the same incidence angle and distance. Results imply that the proposed method has high accuracy and simplicity in eliminating incidence angle and distance effects and can significantly reduce the intensity variations caused by these effects on homogeneous surfaces.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8030251","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,16]],"date-time":"2016-03-16T11:26:45Z","timestamp":1458127605000},"page":"251","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":80,"title":["Correction of Incidence Angle and Distance Effects on TLS Intensity Data Based on Reference Targets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Kai","family":"Tan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, NO. 1239, Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China"},{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaojun","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, NO. 1239, Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3097","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500217277","article-title":"Radiometric correction in laser scanning","volume":"27","author":"Coren","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Shan, J., and Toth, C.K. (2008). Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning: Principles and Processing, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2330852","article-title":"Intensity correction of terrestrial laser scanning data by estimating laser transmission function","volume":"53","author":"Fang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"219","article-title":"Topographic and distance effects in laser scanner intensity correction","volume":"38","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"195","article-title":"Glacier surface segmentation using airborne laser scanning point cloud and intensity data","volume":"36","author":"Geist","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"313","article-title":"Classification of LiDAR point cloud and generation of DTM from LiDAR height and intensity data in forested area","volume":"37","author":"Bao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7658","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2316195","article-title":"Radiometric correction and normalization of airborne LiDAR intensity data for improving land-cover classification","volume":"52","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.10.005","article-title":"Improving classification accuracy of airborne LiDAR intensity data by geometric calibration and radiometric correction","volume":"67","author":"Yan","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.03.003","article-title":"Discrimination between marls and limestones using intensity data from terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"64","author":"Franceschi","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2405573","article-title":"Improving backscatter intensity calibration for multispectral LiDAR","volume":"12","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.5589\/m11-036","article-title":"Surface moisture and vegetation influences on LiDAR intensity data in an agricultural watershed","volume":"37","author":"Garroway","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.12.003","article-title":"Urban vegetation detection using radiometrically calibrated small-footprint full-waveform airborne LiDAR data","volume":"67","author":"Hollaus","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nield, J.M., Wiggs, G.F.S., King, J., Bryant, R.G., Eckardt, F.D., Thomas, D.S.G., and Washington, R. (2015). Climate-surface-pore-water interactions on a salt crusted playa: Implications for crust pattern and surface roughness development using terrestrial laser scanning. Earth Surf. Process. Landf.","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3860"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.2071","article-title":"Aeolian sand strip mobility and protodune development on a drying beach: Examining surface moisture and surface roughness patterns measured by terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"36","author":"Nield","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2207","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3102207","article-title":"Analysis of incidence angle and distance effects on terrestrial laser scanner intensity: Search for correction methods","volume":"3","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2007.05.008","article-title":"Correction of laser scanning intensity data: Data and model-driven approaches","volume":"62","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2007","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10586","DOI":"10.3390\/s111110586","article-title":"Absolute radiometric calibration of ALS intensity data: Effects on accuracy and target classification","volume":"7","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.3390\/rs1030144","article-title":"Radiometric calibration of terrestrial laser scanners with external reference targets","volume":"1","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2013.09.001","article-title":"Snow surface roughness from mobile laser scanning data","volume":"96","author":"Kukko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2036841","article-title":"Effects of target moisture on laser scanner intensity","volume":"48","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeolia.2013.10.006","article-title":"Detecting surface moisture in Aeolian environments using terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"12","author":"Nield","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aeolian Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3352","article-title":"Complex spatial feedbacks of tephra redistribution, ice melt and surface roughness modulate ablation on tephra covered glaciers","volume":"38","author":"Nield","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.04.025","article-title":"Simultaneous measurements of plant structure and chlorophyll content in broadleaf saplings with a terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"114","author":"Eitel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2005.850534","article-title":"Study of surface brightness from backscattered laser intensity: Calibration of laser data","volume":"2","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.911366","article-title":"Brightness measurements and calibration with airborne and terrestrial laser scanners","volume":"46","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2014.2365853","article-title":"Anisotropic surface detection over coastal environment using near-IR LiDAR Intensity Maps","volume":"8","author":"Garestier","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"145","article-title":"Correcting of intensity incidence angle effect in terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"II-5 W","author":"Krooks","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. and Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.01.005","article-title":"Scanning geometry: Influencing factor on the quality of terrestrial laser scanning points","volume":"66","author":"Soudarissanane","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.09.015","article-title":"Combination of overlap-driven adjustment and Phong model for LiDAR intensity correction","volume":"75","author":"Ding","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.2110\/jsr.2011.31","article-title":"LiDAR Intensity as a remote sensor of rock properties","volume":"81","author":"Burton","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2910","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2175232","article-title":"Echo amplitude normalization of full-waveform airborne laser scanning data based on robust incidence angle estimation","volume":"50","author":"Abed","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.47.000986","article-title":"Effect of incidence angle on laser scanner intensity and surface data","volume":"47","author":"Kukko","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28099","DOI":"10.3390\/s151128099","article-title":"A Review of LiDAR radiometric processing: From Ad Hoc intensity correction to rigorous radiometric calibration","volume":"15","author":"Kashani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6336","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70506336","article-title":"Empirical radiometric normalization of road points from terrestrial mobile LiDAR system","volume":"7","author":"Teo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2497310","article-title":"Intensity data correction for the distance effect in terrestrial laser scanners","volume":"9","author":"Tan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"094094:1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.9.094094","article-title":"Intensity data correction based on incidence angle and distance for terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"9","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"10","article-title":"Calibration of the Optech ALTM 3100 laser scanner intensity data using brightness targets","volume":"36","author":"Ahokas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2003351","article-title":"Radiometric calibration of LiDAR intensity with commercially available reference targets","volume":"47","author":"Kaasalainen","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2780","DOI":"10.3390\/s90402780","article-title":"Use of naturally available reference targets to calibrate airborne laser scanning intensity data","volume":"9","author":"Vain","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Pfeifer, N., Dorninger, P., Haring, A., and Fan, H. (2007, January 9\u201312). Investigating terrestrial laser scanning intensity data: quality and functional relations. Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques, Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.76.9.1051","article-title":"Investigations on surface reflection models for intensity normalization in airborne laser scanning (ALS) data","volume":"76","author":"Jutzi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1045","article-title":"Analysis of the backscattered energy in terrestrial laser scanning data","volume":"37","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Oh, D. (2010). Radiometric Correction of Mobile Laser Scanning Intensity Data. [Master\u2019s Thesis, International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation]."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/3\/251\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:20:50Z","timestamp":1760210450000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/3\/251"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,16]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8030251"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8030251","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,16]]}}}