{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T04:09:40Z","timestamp":1784261380392,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,14]],"date-time":"2016-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1460592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NASA Carbon Monitoring Systems Program"},{"name":"USAID Mozambique Global Climate Change Sustainable Landscape Program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Canopy height is one of the strongest predictors of biomass and carbon in forested ecosystems. Additionally, mangrove ecosystems represent one of the most concentrated carbon reservoirs that are rapidly degrading as a result of deforestation, development, and hydrologic manipulation. Therefore, the accuracy of Canopy Height Models (CHM) over mangrove forest can provide crucial information for monitoring and verification protocols. We compared four CHMs derived from independent remotely sensed imagery and identified potential errors and bias between measurement types. CHMs were derived from three spaceborne datasets; Very-High Resolution (VHR) stereophotogrammetry, TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurement, and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (TanDEM-X), and lidar data which was acquired from an airborne platform. Each dataset exhibited different error characteristics that were related to spatial resolution, sensitivities of the sensors, and reference frames. Canopies over 10 m were accurately predicted by all CHMs while the distributions of canopy height were best predicted by the VHR CHM. Depending on the guidelines and strategies needed for monitoring and verification activities, coarse resolution CHMs could be used to track canopy height at regional and global scales with finer resolution imagery used to validate and monitor critical areas undergoing rapid changes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040327","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,14]],"date-time":"2016-04-14T12:37:04Z","timestamp":1460637424000},"page":"327","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":66,"title":["A Comparison of Mangrove Canopy Height Using Multiple Independent Measurements from Land, Air, and Space"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Lagomasino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universities Space Research Association\/GESTAR, 7178 Columbia Gateway Dr., Columbia, MD 21046, USA"},{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1130-6748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Temilola","family":"Fatoyinbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"SeungKuk","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emanuelle","family":"Feliciano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0279-7191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carl","family":"Trettin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Cordesville, SC 29434, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Simard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1123","article-title":"Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics","volume":"4","author":"Donato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14369","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1200519109","article-title":"Global economic potential for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from mangrove loss","volume":"109","author":"Sanchirico","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Murray, B.C., Pendleton, L., Jenkins, W.A., and Sifleet, S. (2011). Green Payments for Blue Carbon: Economic Incentives for Protecting Threatened Coastal Habitats, Duke University. Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions Report NI R 11-04."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-010213-135020","article-title":"Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests","volume":"6","author":"Alongi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892902000231","article-title":"Present state and future of the world\u2019s mangrove forests","volume":"29","author":"Alongi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9899","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1019576108","article-title":"Benchmark map of forest carbon stocks in tropical regions across three continents","volume":"108","author":"Saatchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1354","article-title":"Estimated carbon dioxide emissions from tropical deforestation improved by carbon-density maps","volume":"2","author":"Baccini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8385","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-8385-2013","article-title":"Tree height and tropical forest biomass estimation","volume":"10","author":"Hunter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1136163","article-title":"Tropical forests and climate policy","volume":"316","author":"Gullison","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pendleton, L., Donato, D.C., Murray, B.C., Crooks, S., Jenkins, W.A., Sifleet, S., Craft, C., Fourqurean, J.W., Kauffman, J.B., and Marb\u00e0, N. (2012). Estimating global \u201cblue carbon\u201d emissions from conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043542"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.10.012","article-title":"A systematic method for 3D mapping of mangrove forests based on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission elevation data, ICEsat\/GLAS waveforms and field data: Application to Ci\u00e9naga Grande de Santa Marta, Colombia","volume":"112","author":"Simard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2012.712224","article-title":"Height and biomass of mangroves in Africa from ICESat\/GLAS and SRTM","volume":"34","author":"Fatoyinbo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3608","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2431646","article-title":"TanDEM-X Pol-InSAR inversion for mangrove canopy height estimation","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1002\/rse2.3","article-title":"High-resolution forest canopy height estimation in an African blue carbon ecosystem","volume":"1","author":"Lagomasino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00317496","article-title":"Pantropical trends in mangrove above-ground biomass and annual litterfall","volume":"96","author":"Saenger","year":"1993","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G02S06","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JG000551","article-title":"Landscape-scale extent, height, biomass, and carbon estimation of Mozambique\u2019s mangrove forests with Landsat ETM+ and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission elevation data","volume":"113","author":"Fatoyinbo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4045","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5084045","article-title":"NASA Goddard\u2019s lidar, hyperspectral and thermal (G-LiHT) airborne imager","volume":"5","author":"Cook","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"82","article-title":"Algorithms and methods of airborne laser scanning for forest measurements","volume":"36","author":"Litkey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.008","article-title":"Small-footprint lidar estimation of sub-canopy elevation and tree height in a tropical rain forest landscape","volume":"91","author":"Clark","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Lee, S.-K., Fatoyinbo, T., Osmanoglu, B., and Sun, G. (2014, January 13\u201318). Polarimetric SAR interferometry evaluation in mangroves. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Quebec City, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10070","DOI":"10.3390\/rs61010070","article-title":"The uncertainty of plot-scale forest height estimates from complementary spaceborne observations in the taiga-tundra ecotone","volume":"6","author":"Montesano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6031762","article-title":"Deciphering the precision of stereo IKONOS canopy height models for US forests with G-LiHT airborne lidar","volume":"6","author":"Neigh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1109\/36.718859","article-title":"Polarimetric SAR interferometry","volume":"36","author":"Cloude","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.2989\/OSTRICH.2007.78.2.12.92","article-title":"Distribution, structure and simulation modelling of the Wattled Crane population in the Marromeu Complex of the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique","volume":"78","author":"Bento","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ostrich J. Afr. Ornithol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Tweddle, D. Lower Zambezi. Available online: http:\/\/www.feow.org\/ecoregions\/details\/lower_Zambezi."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1080\/15715124.2010.533643","article-title":"Modelling trade-offs between hydropower generation and environmental flow scenarios: A case study of the Lower Zambezi River Basin, Mozambique","volume":"8","author":"Beilfuss","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. River Basin Manag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.09.029","article-title":"Morphological effects of damming on Lower Zambezi River","volume":"115","author":"Ronco","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1080\/15715121003714837","article-title":"Assessing environmental flow requirements and trade-offs for the Lower Zambezi River and Delta, Mozambique","volume":"8","author":"Beilfuss","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. River Basin Manag."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Timberlake, J. (2000). Biodiversity of the Zambezi Basin, Biodiversity Foundation for Africa."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2015.06.027","article-title":"Carbon stocks of mangroves within the Zambezi River Delta, Mozambique","volume":"354","author":"Stringer","year":"2015","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Feliciano, E.A. (2015). Multi-Scale Remote Sensing Assessments of Forested Wetlands: Applications to the Everglades National Park. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Miami]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavlis, N.K., Holmes, S.A., Kenyon, S.C., and Factor, J.K. (2012). The development and evaluation of the Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008). J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JB008916"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3317","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.900693","article-title":"TanDEM-X: A satellite formation for high-resolution SAR interferometry","volume":"45","author":"Krieger","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2253448","article-title":"Quantification of temporal decorrelation effects at L-band for polarimetric SAR interferometry applications","volume":"6","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6404","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2296533","article-title":"TanDEM-X Pol-InSAR performance for forest height estimation","volume":"52","author":"Kugler","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1002\/2013EO130002","article-title":"High-resolution satellite data open for government research","volume":"94","author":"Neigh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Moratto, Z.M., Broxton, M.J., Beyer, R.A., Lundy, M., and Husmann, K. (2010, January 1\u20135). Ames Stereo Pipeline, NASA\u2019s open source automated stereogrammetry software. Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Woodlands, Singapore."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.04.001","article-title":"Features of point clouds synthesized from multi-view ALOS\/PRISM data and comparisons with lidar data in forested areas","volume":"149","author":"Ni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6347","DOI":"10.3390\/s120506347","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of digital surface models based on WorldView-2 and ADS80 stereo remote sensing data","volume":"12","author":"Hobi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x","article-title":"Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data","volume":"20","author":"Giri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2009437","article-title":"Tropical-forest-parameter estimation by means of Pol-InSAR: The INDREX-II campaign","volume":"47","author":"Hajnsek","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1084-0699(2006)11:6(597)","article-title":"Evaluation of the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency index","volume":"11","author":"McCuen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.11.022","article-title":"A comparison of lidar, radar, and field measurements of canopy height in pine and hardwood forests of southeastern North America","volume":"257","author":"Sexton","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crte.2005.06.006","article-title":"Assessment of C-band SRTM DEM in a dense equatorial forest zone","volume":"337","author":"Bourgine","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus Geosci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3604","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3932","article-title":"A 66-year tropical cyclone record for south-east Africa: Temporal trends in a global context","volume":"34","author":"Fitchett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1672\/08-40.1","article-title":"Cumulative impacts of hurricanes on Florida mangrove ecosystems: Sediment deposition, storm surges and vegetation","volume":"29","author":"Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5294","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2420996","article-title":"Forest height estimation by means of Pol-InSAR data inversion: The role of the vertical wavenumber","volume":"53","author":"Kugler","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.2307\/2388214","article-title":"Tree mortality in mangrove forests","volume":"17","author":"Jimenez","year":"1985","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1127(86)90113-1","article-title":"Tree growth, dynamics, and productivity in a mature mangrove forest in Malaysia","volume":"17","author":"Putz","year":"1986","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2008.01274.x","article-title":"Pervasive canopy dynamics produce short-term stability in a tropical rain forest landscape","volume":"12","author":"Kellner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2014.11.017","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variability in spectral-based surface energy evapotranspiration measured from Landsat 5TM across two mangrove ecotones","volume":"213","author":"Lagomasino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.08.022","article-title":"Estimating major ion and nutrient concentrations in mangrove estuaries in Everglades National Park using leaf and satellite reflectance","volume":"154","author":"Lagomasino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-2145-2013","article-title":"Modeling light use efficiency in a subtropical mangrove forest equipped with CO2 eddy covariance","volume":"10","author":"Barr","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16504","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71215838","article-title":"The Mangroves of the Zambezi Delta: Increase in Extent Observed via Satellite from 1994 to 2013","volume":"7","author":"Shapiro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/4\/327\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:22:15Z","timestamp":1760210535000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/4\/327"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,14]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8040327"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8040327","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,14]]}}}