{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T23:13:43Z","timestamp":1784589223593,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,15]],"date-time":"2016-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1460678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"\u201cThree dimensional individual tree crown delineation based on multiple remotely sensed data sources and tree competition mechanism\u201d supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["31400491"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31400491"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Automated individual tree crown detection and delineation (ITCD) using remotely sensed data plays an increasingly significant role in efficiently, accurately, and completely monitoring forests. This paper reviews trends in ITCD research from 1990\u20132015 from several perspectives\u2014data\/forest type, method applied, accuracy assessment and research objective\u2014with a focus on studies using LiDAR data. This review shows that active sources are becoming more prominent in ITCD studies. Studies using active data\u2014LiDAR in particular\u2014accounted for 80% of the total increase over the entire time period, those using passive data or fusion of passive and active data comprised relatively small proportions of the total increase (8% and 12%, respectively). Additionally, ITCD research has moved from incremental adaptations of algorithms developed for passive data sources to innovative approaches that take advantage of the novel characteristics of active datasets like LiDAR. These improvements make it possible to explore more complex forest conditions (e.g., closed hardwood forests, suburban\/urban forests) rather than a single forest type although most published ITCD studies still focused on closed softwood (41%) or mixed forest (22%). Approximately one-third of studies applied individual tree level (30%) assessment, with only a quarter reporting more comprehensive multi-level assessment (23%). Almost one-third of studies (32%) that concentrated on forest parameter estimation based on ITCD results had no ITCD-specific evaluation. Comparison of methods continues to be complicated by both choice of reference data and assessment metric; it is imperative to establish a standardized two-level assessment framework to evaluate and compare ITCD algorithms in order to provide specific recommendations about suitable applications of particular algorithms. However, the evolution of active remotely sensed data and novel platforms implies that automated ITCD will continue to be a promising technology and an attractive research topic for both the forestry and remote sensing communities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040333","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,15]],"date-time":"2016-04-15T11:36:02Z","timestamp":1460720162000},"page":"333","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":310,"title":["Trends in Automatic Individual Tree Crown Detection and Delineation\u2014Evolution of LiDAR Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Zhen","family":"Zhen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Management, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lindi","family":"Quackenbush","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Resource Engineering, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lianjun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest and Natural Resources Management, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701736489","article-title":"Review of methods of small-footprint airborne laser scanning for extracting forest inventory data in boreal forests","volume":"29","author":"Leckie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maltamo, M., N\u00e6sset, E., and Vauhkonen, J. (2014). Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning, Springer. Chapter 6.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8663-8"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1127(99)00278-9","article-title":"Accuracy comparison of various remote sensing data sources in the retrieval of forest stand attributes","volume":"128","author":"Inkinen","year":"2000","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"163","article-title":"Estimating oven\u2013dry mass of trembling aspen and white birch using measurements from aerial photographs","volume":"16","author":"Alemdag","year":"1986","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1139\/x93-269","article-title":"Large\u2013scale 35\u2013mm aerial photographs for assessment of vegetation\u2013management research plots in eastern Canada","volume":"23","author":"Pitt","year":"1993","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1139\/X10-073","article-title":"Using error-in-variable regression to predict tree diameter and crown width from remotely sensed imagery","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.03.005","article-title":"Quantifying tree cover in the forest-grassland ecotone of British Columbia using crown delineation and pattern detection","volume":"212","author":"Bai","year":"2005","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00210-8","article-title":"Laser altimeter canopy height profiles methods and validation for closed-canopy, broadleaf forests","volume":"76","author":"Harding","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2007.06.022","article-title":"Estimating biomass of individual pine trees using airborne LiDAR","volume":"31","author":"Popescu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"101","article-title":"Investigating multiple data sources for tree species classification in temperate forest and use for single tree delineation","volume":"18","author":"Heinzel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.001","article-title":"Automatic detection of harvested trees and determination of forest growth using airborne laser scanning","volume":"90","author":"Yu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1228","article-title":"Stem number estimation by kernel smoothing of aerial photos","volume":"26","author":"Dralle","year":"1996","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.02.029","article-title":"Single tree detection in very high resolution remote sensing data","volume":"110","author":"Hirschmugl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.10.011","article-title":"Automated tree recognition in old growth conifer stands with high resolution digital imagery","volume":"94","author":"Leckie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4725","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.494184","article-title":"A review of methods for automatic individual tree crown detection and delineation from passive remote sensing","volume":"32","author":"Ke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"57","article-title":"Context-sensitive extraction of tree crown objects in urban areas using VHR satellite images","volume":"15","author":"Ardila","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.12.022","article-title":"Estimating average tree crown size using spatial information from Ikonos and QuickBird images: Across-sensor and across-site comparisons","volume":"114","author":"Song","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"27","article-title":"Detecting and estimating attributes for single trees using laser scanner","volume":"16","author":"Inkinen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Finl."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"58","article-title":"HIGH-SCAN: The first European-wide attempt to derive single-tree information from laser scanner data","volume":"17","author":"Schardt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Finl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1080\/02827580701672147","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning as a method in operational forest inventory: Status of accuracy assessments accomplished in Scandinavia","volume":"22","year":"2007","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.4.357","article-title":"Detection of individual trees crowns in airborne LiDAR data","volume":"72","author":"Koch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.12.1369","article-title":"Single tree segmentation using airborne laser scanner data in a structurally heterogeneous spruce forest","volume":"72","author":"Solberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.12.004","article-title":"Prediction of species specific forest inventory attributes using a nonparametric semi-individual tree crown approach based on fused airborne laser scanning and multispectral data","volume":"114","author":"Breidenbach","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5827","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.507790","article-title":"Comparison of six individual tree crown detection algorithms evaluated under varying forest conditions","volume":"32","author":"Larsen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2015.1030043","article-title":"Agent-based region growing for individual tree crown delineation from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data","volume":"36","author":"Zhen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4040950","article-title":"An international comparison of individual tree detection and extraction using airborne laser scanning","volume":"4","author":"Kaartinen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.03.009","article-title":"Hyperspectral discrimination of tropical rain forest tree species at leaf to crown scales","volume":"96","author":"Clark","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.03.014","article-title":"A bottom-up approach to segment individual deciduous trees using leaf-off LiDAR point cloud data","volume":"94","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2008.09.008","article-title":"A higher-order active contour model of a \u201cgas of circles\u201d and its application to tree crown extraction","volume":"42","author":"Jermyn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pattern Recogn."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.77.3.241","article-title":"A multi-level morphological active contour algorithm for delineating tree crowns in mountainous forest","volume":"77","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6010555","article-title":"Impact of tree-oriented growth order in marker-controlled region growing for individual tree crown delineation using airborne laser scanner (ALS) data","volume":"6","author":"Zhen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4213","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70404213","article-title":"High-resolution airborne UAV imagery to assess Olive tree crown parameters using 3D photo reconstruction: Application in breeding trials","volume":"7","author":"Rosa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2013.06.002","article-title":"Tree mapping using airborne, terrestrial and mobile laser scanning\u2013A case study in a heterogeneous urban forest","volume":"12","author":"Holopainen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5020584","article-title":"A voxel-based method for automated identification and morphological parameters estimation of individual street trees from mobile laser scanning data","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.02.001","article-title":"LiDAR sampling for large-area forest characterization: A review","volume":"121","author":"Wulder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"151","article-title":"Forest parameter extraction from airborne sensors","volume":"32","author":"Borgefors","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"5","article-title":"Comparing the accuracy of laser scanner with other optical remote sensing data sources for stand attributes retrieval","volume":"16","year":"1999","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Finl."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"34","article-title":"A method to create a three-dimensional forest model from laser scanning data","volume":"17","author":"Pyysalo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Finl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116042000298289","article-title":"Mapping individual tree location, height and species in broadleaved deciduous forest using airborne LiDAR and multi-spectral remotely sensed data","volume":"26","author":"Koukoulas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1109\/36.921414","article-title":"A segmentation-based method to retrieve stem volume estimates from 3D tree height models produced by laser scanners","volume":"39","author":"Kelle","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2009.09.006","article-title":"Multiple attribute decision making for individual tree detection using high-resolution laser scanning","volume":"258","author":"Forzieri","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00008-7","article-title":"Detection and analysis of individual leaf-off tree crowns in small footprint, high sampling density LiDAR data from the eastern deciduous forest in North America","volume":"85","author":"Brandtberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.01.004","article-title":"Patterns of covariance between forest stand and canopy structure in the Pacific Northwest","volume":"95","author":"Lefsky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2040968","article-title":"Comparative analysis of clustering-based approaches for 3-D single tree detection using airborne fullwave LiDAR data","volume":"2","author":"Gupta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2261","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2005.855622","article-title":"Measurements on individual trees using multiple VHF SAR images","volume":"43","author":"Hallberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.5589\/m04-026","article-title":"Estimation of forest stem volume in sloping terrain using CARABAS-II VHF SAR data","volume":"30","author":"Fransson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1109\/36.842001","article-title":"Estimation of forest parameters using CARABAS-II VHF SAR data","volume":"38","author":"Fransson","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2364","DOI":"10.1109\/36.964972","article-title":"On the retrieving of forest stem volume from VHF SAR data: Observation and modeling","volume":"39","author":"Melon","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.10.008","article-title":"Prediction of plot-level forest variables using TerraSAR-X stereo SAR data","volume":"117","author":"Karjalainen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.801777","article-title":"High-resolution InSAR image simulation for forest canopies","volume":"40","author":"Varekamp","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2040939","article-title":"Eucalyptus biomass and volume estimation using interferometric and polarimetric SAR data","volume":"2","author":"Gama","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.907107","article-title":"Model-associated forest parameter retrieval using VHF SAR data at the individual tree level","volume":"46","author":"Kononov","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4051411","article-title":"Improving the precision of tree counting by combining tree detection with crown delineation and classification on homogeneity guided smoothed high resolution (50 cm) multispectral airborne digital data","volume":"4","author":"Katoh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2004.09.015","article-title":"Use of airborne LiDAR and aerial photography in the estimation of individual tree heights in forestry","volume":"31","author":"Suarez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Hyypp\u00e4, J., Mielonen, T., Hyypp\u00e4, H., Maltamo, M., Yu, X., Honkavaara, E., and Kaartinen, H. (2005, January 12\u201314). Using individual tree crown approach for forest volume extraction with aerial images and laser point clouds. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences 36 (3\/W19), Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"28","article-title":"A GEOBIA framework to estimate forest parameters from LiDAR transects, Quickbird imagery and machine learning: A case study in Quebec, Canada","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-024","article-title":"Combined high-density LiDAR and multispectral imagery for individual tree crown analysis","volume":"29","author":"Leckie","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.05.011","article-title":"Estimating spruce and pine biomass with interferometric X-band SAR","volume":"114","author":"Solberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701736364","article-title":"Quantifying the influence of slope, aspect, crown shape and stem density on the estimation of tree height at plot level using LiDAR and InSAR data","volume":"29","author":"Breidenbach","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.01.021","article-title":"Mapping forest structure for wildlife habitat analysis using multi-sensor (LiDAR, SAR\/InSAR, ETM+, Quickbird) synergy","volume":"102","author":"Hyde","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.3.351","article-title":"Individual tree-crown delineation and treetop detection in high-spatial-resolution aerial imagery","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.8.923","article-title":"Isolating individual trees in a Savanna woodland using small footprint LiDAR data","volume":"72","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00101-2","article-title":"Local maximum filtering for the extraction of tree locations and basal area from high spatial resolution imagery","volume":"73","author":"Wulder","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.01.009","article-title":"Multi-class predictive template for tree crown detection","volume":"68","author":"Hung","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.08.002","article-title":"Markov-random-field-based super-resolution mapping for identification of urban trees in VHR images","volume":"66","author":"Ardila","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"646","article-title":"Multi-level filtering segmentation to measure individual tree parameters based on LiDAR data: Application to a mountainous forest with heterogeneous stands","volume":"13","author":"Durrieu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maltamo, M., N\u00e6sset, E., and Vauhkonen, J. (2014). Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning, Springer. Chapter 5.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8663-8"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.018","article-title":"A LiDAR-derived canopy density model for tree stem and crown mapping in Australian forests","volume":"111","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.78.7.679","article-title":"A fusion approach for tree crown delineation from LiDAR data","volume":"78","author":"Gleason","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.10.002","article-title":"A novel transferable individual tree crown delineation model based on Fishing Net Dragging and boundary classification","volume":"110","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"169","article-title":"Comparing digital object based approaches for mangrove tree crown delineation using WorldView-2 satellite imagery","volume":"3","author":"Heenkenda","year":"2014","journal-title":"South-East. Eur. J. Earth Observ. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6461","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5126461","article-title":"Canopy fuel load mapping of mediterranean pine sites based on individual tree-crown delineation","volume":"5","author":"Mallinis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.05.013","article-title":"LiDAR-based geometric reconstruction of boreal type forest stands at single tree level for forest and wildland fire management","volume":"92","author":"Morsdorf","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.78.1.75","article-title":"A new method for segmenting individual trees from the LiDAR point cloud","volume":"78","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kandare, K., Dalponte, M., Gianelle, D., and Chan, J.C. (2014, January 13\u201318). A new procedure for identifying single trees in understory layer using discrete LiDAR data. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Quebue, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2014.6946686"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.06.011","article-title":"A voxel-based LiDAR method for estimating crown base height for deciduous and pine trees","volume":"112","author":"Popescu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3938","DOI":"10.3390\/s8063938","article-title":"A LiDAR point cloud based procedure for vertical canopy structure analysis and 3D single tree modeling in forest","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4999","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.494633","article-title":"Prior knowledge-based single-tree extraction","volume":"32","author":"Heinzel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5171","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2012.657363","article-title":"Single tree detection in heterogeneous boreal forests using airborne lasers canning and area-based stem number estimates","volume":"33","author":"Ene","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.3390\/f5030384","article-title":"Estimating single-tree crown biomass of Norway spruce by airborne laser scanning: A comparison of methods with and without the use of terrestrial laser scanning to obtain the ground reference data","volume":"5","author":"Hauglin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Forests"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.04.002","article-title":"3D segmentation of single trees exploiting full waveform LiDAR data","volume":"64","author":"Reitberger","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.07.044","article-title":"An efficient, multi-layered crown delineation algorithm for mapping individual tree structure across multiple ecosystem","volume":"154","author":"Duncanson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.12.020","article-title":"On the use of binary partition trees for the tree crown segmentation of tropical rainforest hyperspectral images","volume":"159","author":"Tochon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"957","article-title":"Model-based conifer-crown surface reconstruction from high-resolution aerial images","volume":"67","author":"Sheng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.002","article-title":"Improving species-specific plot volume estimates based on airborne laser scanning and image data using alpha shape metrics and balanced field data","volume":"124","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S441","DOI":"10.5589\/m08-052","article-title":"Effects of pulse density on predicting characteristics of individual trees of Scandinavian commercial species using alpha shape metrics based on airborne laser scanning data","volume":"34","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"37","article-title":"Identification of Scandinavian commercial species of individual trees from airborne laser scanning data using alpha shape metrics","volume":"55","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.01.016","article-title":"Imputation of single-tree attributes using airborne laser scanning-based height, intensity, and alpha shape metrics","volume":"114","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"50","article-title":"Development of filtering, segmentation and modelling modules for LiDAR and multispectral data as a fundamental of an automatic forest inventory system","volume":"36","author":"Weinacker","year":"2004","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161003649339","article-title":"Canopy surface reconstruction from a LiDAR point cloud using Hough transform","volume":"1","author":"Coops","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.02.010","article-title":"Capturing tree crown formation through implicit surface reconstruction using airborne LiDAR data","volume":"113","author":"Kato","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600928591","article-title":"The use of airborne LiDAR for orchard tree inventory","volume":"29","author":"Jang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.08.004","article-title":"An efficient approach to 3D single tree-crown delineation in LiDAR data","volume":"108","author":"Mongus","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"98","article-title":"PTrees: A point-based approach to forest tree extraction from LiDAR data","volume":"33","author":"Vega","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1109\/36.911116","article-title":"Observation of tropical rain forest trees by airborne high-resolution interferometric Radar","volume":"39","author":"Hoekman","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.12.015","article-title":"The delineation of tree crowns in Australian mixed species forests using hyperspectral Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) data","volume":"101","author":"Bunting","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.04.003","article-title":"An individual tree crown delineation method based on multi-scale segmentation of imagery","volume":"70","author":"Jing","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.11.1287","article-title":"The individual tree crown approach applied to Ikonos images of a coniferous plantation area","volume":"72","author":"Gougeon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.1139\/x05-145","article-title":"Development and evaluation of an automated tree detection-delineation algorithm for monitoring regenerating coniferous forests","volume":"35","author":"Pouliot","year":"2005","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2009.05.017","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning in forest management: Individual tree identification and laser pulse penetration in a stand with different levels of thinning","volume":"258","author":"Hirata","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.08.002","article-title":"A low-cost multi-sensoral mobile mapping system and its feasibility for tree measurements","volume":"65","author":"Jaakkola","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2015.03.003","article-title":"Use of UAV oblique imaging for the detection of individual trees in residential environments","volume":"14","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Gree."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warner, T.A., Nellis, M.D., and Foody, G.M. (2009). The SAGE Handbook of Remote Sensing, Sage.","DOI":"10.4135\/9780857021052"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.05.022","article-title":"Segment-constrained regression tree estimation of forest stand height from very high spatial resolution panchromatic imagery over a boreal environment","volume":"114","author":"Mora","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00050-0","article-title":"Automated tree crown detection and delineation in high-resolution digital camera imagery of coniferous forest regeneration","volume":"82","author":"Pouliot","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500354070","article-title":"The performance of a local maxima method for detecting individual tree tops in aerial photographs","volume":"27","author":"Korpela","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1557","DOI":"10.1139\/x03-062","article-title":"Segmentation of individual tree crowns in colour aerial photographs using region growing supported by fuzzy rules","volume":"33","author":"Erikson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903380615","article-title":"Estimating crown base height for Scots pine by means of the 3D geometry of airborne laser scanning data","volume":"31","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s10707-011-0148-1","article-title":"Computer-based synthetic data to assess the tree delineation algorithm from airborne LiDAR survey","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geoinformatica"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160902882561","article-title":"Adaptive clustering of airborne LiDAR data to segment individual tree crowns in managed pine forests","volume":"31","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"925","article-title":"Detecting and measuring individual trees using an airborne laser scanner","volume":"68","author":"Persson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20154821","article-title":"Delineation of individual tree crowns from ALS and hyperspectral data: A comparison among four methods","volume":"48","author":"Dalponte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.3390\/f6051721","article-title":"A benchmark of LiDAR-based single tree detection methods using heterogeneous forest data from the Alpine space","volume":"6","author":"Eysn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Forests"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.78.10.1079","article-title":"Mapping individual tree species in an urban forest using airborne LiDAR data and hyperspectral imagery","volume":"78","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.09.006","article-title":"Tree crown delineation and tree species classification in boreal forests using hyperspectral and ALS data","volume":"140","author":"Dalponte","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.5589\/m04-045","article-title":"Comparison of forest attributes extracted from fine spatial resolution multispectral and LiDAR data","volume":"30","author":"Coops","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"255","article-title":"Approaches for optimal automated individual tree crown detection in regenerating coniferous forests","volume":"31","author":"Pouliot","year":"2005","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161003762355","article-title":"A comparison of three methods for automatic tree crown detection and delineation methods from high spatial resolution imagery","volume":"32","author":"Ke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(90)90066-U","article-title":"Semivariograms of digital imagery for analysis of conifer canopy structure","volume":"34","author":"Cohen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.69.11.1263","article-title":"Estimating tree crown size from multiresolution remotely sensed imagery","volume":"69","author":"Song","year":"2003","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4051190","article-title":"Advances in forest inventory using airborne laser scanning","volume":"4","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.01.018","article-title":"A graph-based segmentation algorithm for tree crown extraction using airborne LiDAR data","volume":"104","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.76.10.1169","article-title":"Active contour and hill climbing for tree crown detection and delineation","volume":"76","author":"Ke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/4\/333\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:22:19Z","timestamp":1760210539000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/4\/333"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,15]]},"references-count":123,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8040333"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8040333","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,15]]}}}