{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:39:36Z","timestamp":1774265976491,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,13]],"date-time":"2016-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1463097600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We describe the design, implementation and performance of a novel airborne system, which integrates commercial waveform LiDAR, CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) camera and hyperspectral sensors into a common platform system. CAF\u2019s (The Chinese Academy of Forestry) LiCHy (LiDAR, CCD and Hyperspectral) Airborne Observation System is a unique system that permits simultaneous measurements of vegetation vertical structure, horizontal pattern, and foliar spectra from different view angles at very high spatial resolution (~1 m) on a wide range of airborne platforms. The horizontal geo-location accuracy of LiDAR and CCD is about 0.5 m, with LiDAR vertical resolution and accuracy 0.15 m and 0.3 m, respectively. The geo-location accuracy of hyperspectral image is within 2 pixels for nadir view observations and 5\u20137 pixels for large off-nadir observations of 55\u00b0 with multi-angle modular when comparing to LiDAR product. The complementary nature of LiCHy\u2019s sensors makes it an effective and comprehensive system for forest inventory, change detection, biodiversity monitoring, carbon accounting and ecosystem service evaluation. The LiCHy system has acquired more than 8000 km2 of data over typical forests across China. These data are being used to investigate potential LiDAR and optical remote sensing applications in forest management, forest carbon accounting, biodiversity evaluation, and to aid in the development of similar satellite configurations. This paper describes the integration of the LiCHy system, the instrument performance and data processing workflow. We also demonstrate LiCHy\u2019s data characteristics, current coverage, and potential vegetation applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8050398","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,13]],"date-time":"2016-05-13T11:53:16Z","timestamp":1463140396000},"page":"398","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":88,"title":["LiCHy: The CAF\u2019s LiDAR, CCD and Hyperspectral Integrated Airborne Observation System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9760-6580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong","family":"Pang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Zengyuan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Hongbo","family":"Ju","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3083-4909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Wen","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Si","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"}]},{"given":"Qingwang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Shiming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Luxia","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Binbin","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiaxing Opto-Electronic Engineering Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jiaxing 314000, China"}]},{"given":"Bingxiang","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Forest Remote Sensing and Information Techniques, State Forestry Administration of China, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Yuanyong","family":"Dian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Resource Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc84807-6","article-title":"The role of LiDAR in sustainable forest management","volume":"84","author":"Wulder","year":"2008","journal-title":"For. Chron."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1890\/070152","article-title":"Airborne spectranomics: Mapping canopy chemical and taxonomic diversity in tropical forests","volume":"7","author":"Asner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"114","article-title":"A composite indicator for assessing habitat quality of riparian forests derived from Earth observation data","volume":"37","author":"Riedler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.1.89","article-title":"Performance analysis of integrated sensor orientation","volume":"73","author":"Ip","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1080\/02827580410019553","article-title":"Laser scanning of forest resources: The Nordic experience","volume":"19","author":"Gobakken","year":"2004","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1890\/070001","article-title":"Lidar: Shedding new light on habitat characterization and modeling","volume":"6","author":"Vierling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.5589\/m12-049","article-title":"Lidar plots\u2014A new large-area data collection option: Context, concepts, and case study","volume":"38","author":"Wulder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7199","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2014.967886","article-title":"Isolating individual trees in a closed coniferous forest using small footprint lidar data","volume":"35","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.06.021","article-title":"The importance of spatial detail: Assessing the utility of individual crown information and scaling approaches for lidar-based biomass density estimation","volume":"168","author":"Duncanson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70100788","article-title":"Modeling aboveground biomass in dense tropical submontane rainforest using airborne laser scanner data","volume":"7","author":"Hansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.10.017","article-title":"A meta-analysis of terrestrial aboveground biomass estimation using lidar remote sensing","volume":"128","author":"Zolkos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E5016","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1419550111","article-title":"Targeted carbon conservation at national scales with high-resolution monitoring","volume":"111","author":"Asner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2007.01.003","article-title":"Instrumentation and approach for unattended year round tower based measurements of spectral reflectance","volume":"56","author":"Hilker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32020","DOI":"10.3390\/s151229906","article-title":"Technological advancement in tower-based canopy reflectance monitoring: The AMSPEC-III system","volume":"15","author":"Tortini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2033383","article-title":"Improving clumping and LAI algorithms based on multi-angle airborne imagery and ground measurements","volume":"48","author":"Simic","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.04.025","article-title":"Multi-source land cover classification for forest fire management based on imaging spectrometry and LiDAR data","volume":"256","author":"Koetz","year":"2008","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4263","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701241720","article-title":"Classification of floodplain vegetation by data fusion of spectral (CASI) and LiDAR data","volume":"28","author":"Geerling","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"679","article-title":"Fused airborne LiDAR and hyperspectral data for tree species identification in a natural temperate forest","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pang, Y., Tan, B., Solberg, S., and Li, Z. (2009). Forest LAI estimation comparison using LiDAR and hyperspectral data in boreal and temperate forests. SPIE Opt. Eng. Appl., 7454.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.826090"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013536","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2794018","article-title":"Carnegie airborne observatory: In-flight fusion of hyperspectral imaging and waveform light detection and ranging for three-dimensional studies of ecosystems","volume":"1","author":"Asner","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"043510","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3361375","article-title":"NEON: The first continental-scale ecological observatory with airborne remote sensing of vegetation canopy biochemistry and structure","volume":"4","author":"Kampe","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON). Available online: http:\/\/www.neoninc.org\/science-design\/collection-methods\/airborne-remote-sensing."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.012","article-title":"Carnegie Airborne Observatory-2: Increasing science data dimensionality via high-fidelity multi-sensor fusion","volume":"124","author":"Asner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4045","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5084045","article-title":"NASA Goddard\u2019s LiDAR, hyperspectral and thermal (G-LiHT) airborne imager","volume":"5","author":"Cook","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.09.006","article-title":"Global biomass mapping for an improved understanding of the CO 2 balance\u2014The Earth observation mission Carbon-3D","volume":"94","author":"Hese","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.07.024","article-title":"Large area mapping of southwestern forest crown cover, canopy height and biomass using the NASA Multiangle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer","volume":"112","author":"Chopping","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.05.017","article-title":"Forest canopy height from Multiangle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer (MISR) assessed with high resolution discrete return lidar","volume":"113","author":"Chopping","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2012.2184268","article-title":"Vegetation structure retrieval in beech and spruce forests using spectrodirectional satellite data","volume":"5","author":"Schlerf","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"AEROcontrol & AEROoffice. Available online: http:\/\/www.igi.eu\/aerocontrol.html."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2008.09.007","article-title":"Full-waveform topographic LiDAR: State-of-the-art","volume":"64","author":"Mallet","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1002\/rse2.8","article-title":"Is waveform worth it? A comparison of LiDAR approaches for vegetation and landscape characterization","volume":"2","author":"Anderson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"RIEGL LMS-Q680i. Available online: http:\/\/www.riegl.com\/products\/airborne-scanning\/produktdetail\/product\/scanner\/23\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"DigiCAM-Digital Aerial Camera. Available online: http:\/\/www.igi.eu\/digicam.html."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"AISA Eagle II. Available online: http:\/\/www.specim.fi\/index.php\/products\/airborne."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2232","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2461441","article-title":"An automatic range ambiguity solution in high-repetition-rate airborne laser scanner using priori terrain prediction","volume":"12","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Terrasolid Ltd., 2015. TerraPhoto User\u2019s Guide. Available online: http:\/\/www.terrasolid.com\/download\/tphoto.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Richter, R., and Schl\u00e4pfer, D. (2016). Atmospheric\/Topographic Correction for Airborne Imagery. ATCOR-4 User Guide Version 7.0.3, ReSe Applications Schl\u00e4pfer."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.3390\/rs1040934","article-title":"LiDAR utility for natural resource managers","volume":"1","author":"Hudak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2014.05.011","article-title":"Simulating the impacts of error in species and height upon tree volume derived from airborne laser scanning data","volume":"327","author":"Tompalski","year":"2014","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simard, M., Pinto, N., Fisher, J.B., and Baccini, A. (2011). Mapping forest canopy height globally with spaceborne lidar. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JG001708"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.01.016","article-title":"Alternate spatial sampling approaches for ecosystem structure inventory using spaceborne lidar","volume":"115","author":"Lefsky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/5\/398\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:23:50Z","timestamp":1760210630000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/5\/398"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,13]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8050398"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8050398","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,13]]}}}