{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T21:29:16Z","timestamp":1768685356891,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,15]],"date-time":"2016-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1468540800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["91125005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["91125005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["J1210003\/J0109"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J1210003\/J0109"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41301508"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41301508"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"The Research Cloud of Alpine Joint Observation of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["Y329L51001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Y329L51001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Merging satellite and rain gauge data by combining accurate quantitative rainfall from stations with spatial continuous information from remote sensing observations provides a practical method of estimating rainfall. However, generating high spatiotemporal rainfall fields for catchment-distributed hydrological modeling is a problem when only a sparse rain gauge network and coarse spatial resolution of satellite data are available. The objective of the study is to present a satellite and rain gauge data-merging framework adapting for coarse resolution and data-sparse designs. In the framework, a statistical spatial downscaling method based on the relationships among precipitation, topographical features, and weather conditions was used to downscale the 0.25\u00b0 daily rainfall field derived from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) precipitation product version 7. The nonparametric merging technique of double kernel smoothing, adapting for data-sparse design, was combined with the global optimization method of shuffled complex evolution, to merge the downscaled TRMM and gauged rainfall with minimum cross-validation error. An indicator field representing the presence and absence of rainfall was generated using the indicator kriging technique and applied to the previously merged result to consider the spatial intermittency of daily rainfall. The framework was applied to estimate daily precipitation at a 1 km resolution in the Qinghai Lake Basin, a data-scarce area in the northeast of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The final estimates not only captured the spatial pattern of daily and annual precipitation with a relatively small estimation error, but also performed very well in stream flow simulation when applied to force the geomorphology-based hydrological model (GBHM). The proposed framework thus appears feasible for rainfall estimation at high spatiotemporal resolution in data-scarce areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8070599","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,15]],"date-time":"2016-07-15T11:08:05Z","timestamp":1468580885000},"page":"599","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["A Merging Framework for Rainfall Estimation at High Spatiotemporal Resolution for Distributed Hydrological Modeling in a Data-Scarce Area"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8469-338X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yinping","family":"Long","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China"},{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8905-9006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaonan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China"},{"name":"Gansu Resources and Environmental Science Data Engineering Technology Research Center, Lanzhou 730000, China"}]},{"given":"Qimin","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China"},{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-10-429-2010","article-title":"An approach to combine radar and gauge based rainfall data under consideration of their qualities in low mountain ranges of saxony","volume":"10","author":"Jatho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. 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