{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T16:58:44Z","timestamp":1768409924969,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,25]],"date-time":"2016-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1477353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000006","name":"Office of Naval Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N000141410190"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N000141410190"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000006","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1550294"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1550294"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The vocalization source level distributions and pulse compression gains are estimated for four distinct baleen whale species in the Gulf of Maine: fin, sei, minke and an unidentified baleen whale species. The vocalizations were received on a large-aperture densely-sampled coherent hydrophone array system useful for monitoring marine mammals over instantaneous wide areas via the passive ocean acoustic waveguide remote sensing technique. For each baleen whale species, between 125 and over 1400 measured vocalizations with significantly high Signal-to-Noise Ratios (SNR &gt; 10 dB) after coherent beamforming and localized with high accuracies (&lt;10% localization errors) over ranges spanning roughly 1 km\u201330 km are included in the analysis. The whale vocalization received pressure levels are corrected for broadband transmission losses modeled using a calibrated parabolic equation-based acoustic propagation model for a random range-dependent ocean waveguide. The whale vocalization source level distributions are characterized by the following means and standard deviations, in units of dB re 1    \u03bc   Pa at 1 m: 181.9 \u00b1 5.2 for fin whale 20-Hz pulses, 173.5 \u00b1 3.2 for sei whale downsweep chirps, 177.7 \u00b1 5.4 for minke whale pulse trains and 169.6 \u00b1 3.5 for the unidentified baleen whale species downsweep calls. The broadband vocalization equivalent pulse-compression gains are found to be 2.5 \u00b1 1.1 for fin whale 20-Hz pulses, 24 \u00b1 10 for the unidentified baleen whale species downsweep calls and 69 \u00b1 23 for sei whale downsweep chirps. These pulse compression gains are found to be roughly proportional to the inter-pulse intervals of the vocalizations, which are 11 \u00b1 5 s for fin whale 20-Hz pulses, 29 \u00b1 18 for the unidentified baleen whale species downsweep calls and 52 \u00b1 33 for sei whale downsweep chirps. The source level distributions and pulse compression gains are essential for determining signal-to-noise ratios and hence detection regions for baleen whale vocalizations received passively on underwater acoustic sensing systems, as well as for assessing communication ranges in baleen whales.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110881","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,25]],"date-time":"2016-10-25T10:28:49Z","timestamp":1477391329000},"page":"881","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Vocalization Source Level Distributions and Pulse Compression Gains of Diverse Baleen Whale Species in the Gulf of Maine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Delin","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Ocean Acoustics and Ecosystem Sensing, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Ocean Acoustics and Ecosystem Sensing, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heriberto","family":"Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Ocean Acoustics and Ecosystem Sensing, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Purnima","family":"Ratilal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Ocean Acoustics and Ecosystem Sensing, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16960","article-title":"Vast assembly of vocal marine mammals from diverse species on fish spawning ground","volume":"531","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, Z., Jain, A.D., Tran, D.D., Yi, D.H., Wu, F., Zorn, A., Ratilal, P., and Makris, N.C. (2014). Ecosystem scale acoustic sensing reveals humpback whale behavior synchronous with herring spawning processes and re-evaluation finds no effect of sonar on humpback song occurrence in the Gulf of Maine in Fall 2006. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104733"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3352","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4874601","article-title":"Using a coherent hydrophone array for observing sperm whale range, classification, and shallow-water dive profiles","volume":"135","author":"Tran","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Kay, S.M. (1998). Fundamentals of Statistical Signal Processing, Vol. II: Detection Theory, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1121\/1.395685","article-title":"The 20-Hz signals of finback whales (Balaenopteraphysalus)","volume":"82","author":"Watkins","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/09524622.1988.9753087","article-title":"Characteristics of finback Balaenoptera physalus vocalizations in the St. Lawrence Estuary","volume":"1","author":"Edds","year":"1988","journal-title":"Bioacoustics"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3672648","article-title":"Sounds from airguns and fin whales recorded in the mid-Atlantic Ocean, 1999\u20132009","volume":"131","author":"Nieukirk","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3051","DOI":"10.1121\/1.404201","article-title":"20-Hz pulses and other vocalizations of fin whales, Balaenopteraphysalus, in the Gulf of California, Mexico","volume":"92","author":"Thompson","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/09524622.2007.9753572","article-title":"Vocalizations of the sei whale Balaenoptera borealis off the Hawaiian Islands","volume":"16","author":"Rankin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bioacoustics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2945155","article-title":"Low frequency vocalizations attributed to sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis)","volume":"124","author":"Baumgartner","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2008.53.5_part_2.2197","article-title":"Diel periodicity in both sei whale vocalization rates and the vertical migration of their copepod prey observed from ocean gliders","volume":"53","author":"Baumgartner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1080\/09524622.2000.9753448","article-title":"Vocalizations of menke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata in the St. Lawrence Estuary","volume":"11","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bioacoustics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.2000.tb00969.x","article-title":"Characteristics of minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) pulse trains recorded near Puerto Rico","volume":"16","author":"Mellinger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mar. Mamm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.3354\/meps10426","article-title":"Minke whale acoustic behavior and multi-year seasonal and diel vocalization patterns in Massachusetts Bay, USA","volume":"489","author":"Risch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2335676","article-title":"St. Lawrence blue whale vocalizations revisited: Characterization of calls detected from 1998 to 2001","volume":"120","author":"Berchok","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3268595","article-title":"Low-frequency target strength and abundance of shoaling Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) in the Gulf of Maine during the Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing 2006 Experiment","volume":"127","author":"Gong","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1734","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1169441","article-title":"Critical population density triggers rapid formation of vast oceanic fish shoals","volume":"323","author":"Makris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3037228","article-title":"Empirical dependence of acoustic transmission scintillation statistics on bandwidth, frequency, and range in New Jersey continental shelf","volume":"125","author":"Andrews","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Urick, R.J. (1983). Principles of Underwater Sound, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Burdic, W.S. (1984). Underwater Acoustic System Analysis, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, F.B., Kuperman, W.A., Porter, M.B., and Schmidt, H. (2011). Computational Ocean Acoustics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-8678-8"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3705","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4821989","article-title":"Comparing passive source localization and tracking approaches with a towed horizontal receiver array in an ocean waveguide","volume":"134","author":"Gong","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2649","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4932547","article-title":"Simultaneous localization of multiple broadband non-impulsive acoustic sources in an ocean waveguide using the array invariant","volume":"138","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2139074","article-title":"The array invariant","volume":"119","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, D.H., and Makris, N.C. (2016). Feasibility of Acoustic Remote Sensing of Large Herring Shoals and Seafloor by Baleen Whales. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090693"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L., and Thomas, L. (2001). Introduction to Distance Sampling Estimating Abundance of Biological Populations, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198506492.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3610","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3583504","article-title":"Cetacean population density estimation from single fixed sensors using passive acoustics","volume":"129","author":"Mellinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.2011.00561.x","article-title":"Estimating minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) boing sound density using passive acoustic sensors","volume":"29","author":"Martin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Mammal Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.3354\/esr00325","article-title":"Estimating North Pacific right whale Eubalaena japonica density using passive acoustic cue counting","volume":"13","author":"Marques","year":"2011","journal-title":"Endanger. Species Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12001","article-title":"Estimating animal population density using passive acoustics","volume":"88","author":"Marques","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1017\/S1367943001001020","article-title":"Effect of anthropogenic low-frequency noise on the foraging ecology of Balaenoptera whales","volume":"4","author":"Croll","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anim. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2907.2007.00104.x","article-title":"Responses of cetaceans to anthropogenic noise","volume":"37","author":"Nowacek","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mammal Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2749452","article-title":"Blue and fin whale call source levels and propagation range in the Southern Ocean","volume":"122","author":"Hildebrand","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4773277","article-title":"Source levels of fin whale 20 Hz pulses measured in the Northeast Pacific Ocean","volume":"133","author":"Weirathmueller","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1814","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3666015","article-title":"Long distance passive localization of vocalizing sei whales using an acoustic normal mode approach","volume":"131","author":"Newhall","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3038","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1371763","article-title":"Localization and visual verification of a complex minke whale vocalization","volume":"109","author":"Gedamke","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1163\/1568539X-00003187","article-title":"Individual calling behaviour and movements of North Atlantic minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)","volume":"151","author":"Risch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behaviour"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1912752","article-title":"Underwater sounds from the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus","volume":"50","author":"Cummings","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1578\/AM.31.2.2005.161","article-title":"Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) diel call patterns offshore of Southern California","volume":"31","author":"Wiggins","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquat. Mamm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.3354\/meps330269","article-title":"Behavioral context of call production by eastern North Pacific blue whales","volume":"330","author":"Oleson","year":"2007","journal-title":"MEPS"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3659","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4763547","article-title":"Probability distribution for energy of saturated broadband ocean acoustic transmission: Results from Gulf of Maine 2006 experiment","volume":"132","author":"Tran","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1121\/1.406739","article-title":"A split-step Pad\u00e9 solution for the parabolic equation method","volume":"93","author":"Collins","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Skolnik, M.I. (2001). Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1969.7230","article-title":"Pulse compression by means of linear-period modulation","volume":"57","author":"Kroszczynski","year":"1969","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3616","DOI":"10.1121\/1.423944","article-title":"Long-range acoustic detection and localization of blue whale calls in the northeast Pacific Ocean","volume":"104","author":"Stafford","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3518","DOI":"10.1121\/1.429434","article-title":"Recognizing transient low-frequency whale sounds by spectrogram correlation","volume":"107","author":"Mellinger","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1080\/10236249709379005","article-title":"Methods for automatic detection of mysticete sounds","volume":"29","author":"Mellinger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Behav. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"93","article-title":"Definition of the Antarctic and pygmy blue whale call templates. Application to fast automatic detection","volume":"36","author":"Flore","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1643\/0045-8511(2003)003[0422:BR]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Bigelow and Schroeder\u2019s Fishes of the Gulf of Maine","volume":"2003","author":"Haedrich","year":"2003","journal-title":"Copeia"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6010180","article-title":"Feasibility of ocean acoustic waveguide remote sensing (OAWRS) of Atlantic cod with seafloor scattering limitations","volume":"6","author":"Jain","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2960\/J.v11.a2","article-title":"Biology and population changes of northern sand lance (Ammodytes dubius) from the Gulf of Maine to the Middle Atlantic Bight","volume":"11","author":"Nelson","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Northwest Atl. Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsl009","article-title":"Consumption impacts by marine mammals, fish, and seabirds on the Gulf of Maine\u2013Georges Bank Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) complex during the years 1977\u20132002","volume":"64","author":"Overholtz","year":"2007","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1","article-title":"Stock assessment of the Gulf of Maine\u2013Georges Bank Atlantic herring complex, 2003","volume":"4","author":"Overholtz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Northeast Fish. Sci. Cent. Ref. Doc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsl018","article-title":"The dynamics of a recovering fish stock: Georges Bank herring","volume":"64","author":"Melvin","year":"2007","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"2","article-title":"Considering other consumers: Fisheries, predators, and Atlantic herring in the Gulf of Maine","volume":"7","author":"Read","year":"2003","journal-title":"Conserv. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1051\/alr\/2012003","article-title":"Aggregative patterns of pre-spawning Atlantic herring on Georges Bank from 1999\u20132010","volume":"25","author":"Jech","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aquat. Living Resour."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Klaer, N. (2012, January 5\u20139). CIE Reviewer\u2019s Independent Report. Proceedings of the 54th Northeast Regional Stock Assessment Workshop, Woods Hole, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-7836(01)00359-9","article-title":"The Gulf of Maine\u2013Georges Bank Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus): Spatial pattern analysis of the collapse and recovery of a large marine fish complex","volume":"57","author":"Overholtz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fish. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4726073","article-title":"Scattering from extended targets in range-dependent fluctuating ocean-waveguides with clutter from theory and experiments","volume":"132","author":"Jagannathan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3354\/meps08266","article-title":"Ocean acoustic waveguide remote sensing (OAWRS) of marine ecosystems","volume":"395","author":"Jagannathan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Center, N.F.S. (2012, January 5\u20139). Atlantic herring stock assessment for 2012. Prooceedings of the 54th Northeast Regional Stock Assessment Workshop (54th SAW), Woods Hole, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"57","article-title":"Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) demographics in the Gulf of Maine from 1998 to 2012","volume":"47","author":"Jech","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Northwest Atl. Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"2607","article-title":"The ONR five octave research array (FORA) at Penn State","volume":"5","author":"Becker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3177271","article-title":"High resolution population density imaging of random scatterers with the matched filtered scattered field variance","volume":"126","author":"Andrews","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3132525","article-title":"A versatile pitch tracking algorithm: From human speech to killer whale vocalizations","volume":"126","author":"Shapiro","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Wang, C., and Seneff, S. (2000, January 5\u20139). Robust pitch tracking for prosodic modeling in telephone speech. Proceedings of the 2000 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, Piscataway, NJ, USA."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Jolliffe, I. (2002). Principal Component Analysis, Wiley Online Library. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2002.1017616","article-title":"An efficient k-means clustering algorithm: Analysis and implementation","volume":"24","author":"Kanungo","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1799252","article-title":"Long range acoustic imaging of the continental shelf environment: The Acoustic Clutter Reconnaissance Experiment 2001","volume":"117","author":"Ratilal","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3614542","article-title":"Effects of multiple scattering, attenuation and dispersion in waveguide sensing of fish","volume":"130","author":"Andrews","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Kinsler, L.E., Frey, A.R., Coppens, A.B., and Sanders, J.V. (1999). Fundamentals of Acoustics, Wiley-VCH. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2007.04.020","article-title":"Recording and quantification of ultrasonic echolocation clicks from free-ranging toothed whales","volume":"54","author":"Madsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part I"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Goodman, J.W. (2015). Statistical Optics, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1121\/1.416239","article-title":"The effect of saturated transmission scintillation on ocean acoustic intensity measurements","volume":"100","author":"Makris","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1121\/1.413565","article-title":"Blue and fin whales observed on a seafloor array in the Northeast Pacific","volume":"98","author":"McDonald","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Croll, D.A., Clark, C.W., Acevedo, A., Tershy, B., Flores, S., Gedamke, J., and Urban, J. (2002). Bioacoustics: Only male fin whales sing loud songs. Nature, 417.","DOI":"10.1038\/417809a"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Oppenheim, A.V., and Schafer, R.W. (2010). Discrete-Time Signal Processing, Pearson Higher Education."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2832509","article-title":"Range-dependent waveguide scattering model calibrated for bottom reverberation in a continental shelf environment","volume":"123","author":"Galinde","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1910799","article-title":"20-Hz Signals Observed in the Central Pacific","volume":"43","author":"Northrop","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01020.x","article-title":"Estimated source levels of fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) vocalizations: Adjustments for surface interference","volume":"18","author":"Charif","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mar. Mamm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Battista, T., Clark, R., and Pittman, S. (2006). An Ecological Characterization of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Region: Oceanographic, Biogeographic, and Contaminants Assessment, Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (CCMA), NOAA\/NOS\/NCCOS."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Payne, P.M., Selzer, L.A., and Knowlton, A.R. (1984). Distribution and Density of Cetaceans, Marine Turtles, And Seabirds in the Shelf Waters of the Northeastern United States, June 1980-December 1983, Based on Shipboard Observations, Manomet Bird Observatory."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2007.0281","article-title":"\u2018Megapclicks\u2019: Acoustic click trains and buzzes produced during night-time foraging of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)","volume":"3","author":"Stimpert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"329","article-title":"Potential use of surface reverberation by bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus, in under-ice navigation: Preliminary considerations","volume":"37","author":"Ellison","year":"1987","journal-title":"Rep. Int. Whal. Comm."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/11\/881\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:33:51Z","timestamp":1760211231000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/11\/881"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,25]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8110881"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8110881","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,25]]}}}