{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:29:50Z","timestamp":1774265390485,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,13]],"date-time":"2016-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1478995200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["000420"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["000420"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is a great deal of debate on the extent, causes, and even the reality of land degradation in the Sahel. Investigations carried out before approximately 2000 using remote sensing data suggest widespread reductions in biological productivity, while studies extending beyond 2000 consistently reveal a net increase in vegetation production, strongly related to the recovery of rainfall following the extreme droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, and thus challenging the notion of widespread, long-term, subcontinental-scale degradation. Yet, the spatial variations in the rates of vegetation recovery are not fully explained by rainfall trends. It is hypothesized that, in addition to rainfall, other meteorological variables and human land use have contributed to vegetation dynamics. Throughout most of the Sahel, the interannual variability in growing season \u03a3NDVIgs (measured from satellites, used as a proxy of vegetation productivity) was strongly related to rainfall, humidity, and temperature (mean r2 = 0.67), but with rainfall alone was weaker (mean r2 = 0.41). The mean and upper 95th quantile (UQ) rates of change in \u03a3NDVIgs in response to climate were used to predict potential \u03a3NDVIgs\u2014that is, the \u03a3NDVIgs expected in response to climate variability alone, excluding any anthropogenic effects. The differences between predicted and observed \u03a3NDVIgs were regressed against time to detect any long-term (positive or negative) trends in vegetation productivity. Over most of the Sahel, the trends did not significantly depart from what is expected from the trends in meteorological variables. However, substantial and spatially contiguous areas (~8% of the total area of the Sahel) were characterized by negative, and, in some areas, positive trends. To explore whether the negative trends were human-induced, they were compared with the available data of population density, land use, and land biophysical properties that are known to affect the susceptibility of land to degradation. The spatial variations in the trends of the residuals were partly related to soils and tree cover, but also to several anthropogenic pressures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110948","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,14]],"date-time":"2016-11-14T11:39:50Z","timestamp":1479123590000},"page":"948","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Environmental and Anthropogenic Degradation of Vegetation in the Sahel from 1982 to 2006"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7319-1782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaldoun","family":"Rishmawi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20782, USA"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Prince","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20782, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations (2011). World Population Prospects the 2010 Revision Volume I: Comprehensive Tables, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. [CD-ROM]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.energy.28.050302.105459","article-title":"Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions","volume":"28","author":"Lambin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Environ. Resour."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/0308-521X(92)90047-R","article-title":"Population pressure, land degradation and sustainable agricultural technologies in the Sahel","volume":"40","author":"Ramaswamy","year":"1992","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-8809(90)90214-X","article-title":"Changes in West African savanna agriculture in response to growing population and continuing low rainfall","volume":"31","author":"Vierich","year":"1990","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT) (2011). Livestock Primary Statistical Database, FAOSTAT."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5347(97)01133-6","article-title":"Catastrophic vegetation shifts and soil degradation in terrestrial grazing systems","volume":"12","author":"Rietkerk","year":"1997","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evolut."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2002)015<0187:RVIWAD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Rainfall variability in West Africa during the years 1950\u201390","volume":"15","author":"Lebel","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.3354\/cr017123","article-title":"Climatic and environmental change in Africa during the last two centuries","volume":"17","author":"Nicholson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1126\/science.253.5017.299","article-title":"Expansion and contraction of the Sahara Desert from 1980 to 1990","volume":"253","author":"Tucker","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1006\/jema.1996.0120","article-title":"A water resources planning response to climate change in the Senegal River basin","volume":"49","author":"Venema","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"9","article-title":"Effect of land use on soil degradation and soil productivity decline on alfisols and ultisols in Ogun state in south western Nigeria","volume":"75","author":"Senjobi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. Conspec. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1659\/0276-4741(2005)025[0147:TIOCIP]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The implications of changes in population, land use, and land management for surface runoff in the upper Nile basin area of Ethiopia","volume":"25","author":"Hurni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norman, C. (1987). Expanding deserts, shrinking resources. Science, 235.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.235.4792.963a"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Report on the desert encroachment reconnaissance in northern Sudan: 21 October to 10 November 1975","volume":"17","author":"Lamprey","year":"1988","journal-title":"Desertification Control Bull."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1006\/jare.1996.0099","article-title":"Climate change, drought and desertification","volume":"34","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Mazzucato, V., and Niemeijer, D. (2000). Rethinking Soil and Water Conservation in a Changing Society: A Case Study in Eastern Burkina Faso, Wageningen University."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Tiffen, M., Mortimore, M., and Gichuki, F. (1994). More People, Less Erosion, ACTS Press. [Kenyan ed.]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.2307\/3060178","article-title":"Agricultural intensification and flexibility in the Nigerian Sahel","volume":"163","author":"Adams","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geogr. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2003.06.003","article-title":"Do small farmers\u2019 achievements contradict the nutrient depletion scenarios for Africa?","volume":"22","author":"Mortimore","year":"2005","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2005.03.005","article-title":"Does the Sahelian smallholder\u2019s management of woodland, farm trees, rangeland support the hypothesis of human-induced desertification?","volume":"63","author":"Mortimore","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-015-0778-1","article-title":"Environmental change in the Sahel: Reconciling contrasting evidence and interpretations","volume":"16","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2011.05.002","article-title":"Desertification in the Sahel: Towards better accounting for ecosystem dynamics in the interpretation of remote sensing images","volume":"75","author":"Hein","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2006.01135.x","article-title":"Desertification in the Sahel: A reinterpretation","volume":"12","author":"Hein","year":"2006","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2007.01356.x","article-title":"Desertification in the Sahel: A reinterpretation of a reinterpretation","volume":"13","author":"Prince","year":"2007","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behnke, R., and Mortimore, M. (2016). The End of Desertification? Disputing Environmental Change in Drylands, Springer Earth System Science Series.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-16014-1"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eklundh, L., and Olsson, L. (2003). Vegetation index trends for the African Sahel 1982\u20131999. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30.","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL016772"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2005.03.008","article-title":"A recent greening of the Sahel-trends, patterns and potential causes","volume":"63","author":"Olsson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.09.014","article-title":"Analysis of trends in the Sahelian \u2018rain-use efficiency\u2019 using GIMMS NDVI, RFE and GPCP rainfall data","volume":"115","author":"Fensholt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"587","article-title":"Variations in the size of the Sahara Desert from 1980 to 1997","volume":"28","author":"Tucker","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2005.08.004","article-title":"Recent trends in vegetation dynamics in the African Sahel and their relationship to climate","volume":"15","author":"Herrmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang. A"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.11.025","article-title":"AVHRR derived phenological change in the Sahel and Soudan, Africa, 1982\u20132005","volume":"108","author":"Heumann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2486.1998.00158.x","article-title":"Evidence from rain-use efficiencies does not indicate extensive Sahelian desertification","volume":"4","author":"Prince","year":"1998","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Reynolds, J., and Stafford Smith, D. (2002). Global Desertification: Do Humans Cause Deserts, Dahlem University Press."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Safriel, U. (2007). The assessment of global trends in land degradation. Clim. Land Degrad., 1\u201338.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-72438-4_1"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicholson, S.E. (2011). Dryland Climatology, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511973840"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2006.05.015","article-title":"Can human-induced land degradation be distinguished from the effects of rainfall variability? A case study in South Africa","volume":"68","author":"Wessels","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rishmawi, K.N., Prince, S.D., and Xue, Y. (2016). Vegetation responses to climate variability in the northern arid to sub-humid zones of Sub-Saharan Africa. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110910"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-1963(03)00121-6","article-title":"Discrimination between climate and human-induced dryland degradation","volume":"57","author":"Evans","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4721","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-13-4721-2016","article-title":"Degradation of net primary production in a semiarid rangeland","volume":"13","author":"Jackson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson, H., and Prince, S.D. (2016). Degradation of non-photosynthetic vegetation in a semi-arid rangeland. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8080692"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behnke, R., and Mortimore, M. (2016). The End of Desertification? Disputing Environmental Change in Drylands, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-16014-1"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Ehleringer, J.R., and Field, C.B. (1993). Scaling Physiological Processes: Leaf to Globe, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hickler, T., Eklundh, L., Seaquist, J.W., Smith, B., Ard\u00f6, J., Olsson, L., Sykes, M., and Sj\u00f6str\u00f6m, M. (2005). Precipitation controls Sahel greening trend. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL024370"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(99)00037-5","article-title":"Evaluation of field-scale and catchment-scale soil erosion models","volume":"37","author":"Jetten","year":"1999","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-2743.2008.00169.x","article-title":"Proxy global assessment of land degradation","volume":"24","author":"Bai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soil Use Manag."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koenker, R. (2005). Quantile Regression (Econometric Society Monographs, Series 38), Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511754098"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.15.4.143","article-title":"Quantile regression","volume":"15","author":"Koenker","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Econ. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.2307\/1913643","article-title":"Regression quantiles","volume":"46","author":"Koenker","year":"1978","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3088","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI3790.1","article-title":"Development of a 50-year high-resolution global dataset of meteorological forcings for land surface modeling","volume":"19","author":"Sheffield","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2006.05.015","article-title":"Can human-induced land degradation be distinguished from the effects of rainfall variability? A case study in South Africa","volume":"68","author":"Wessels","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2307\/523423","article-title":"Land use change in the harsh lands of West Africa","volume":"22","author":"Scott","year":"1979","journal-title":"Afr. Stud. Rev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cleaver, K.M., and Schreiber, G.A. (1994). Reversing the Spiral: The Population, Agriculture, and Environmental Nexus in Sub-Saharan Africa, The World Bank.","DOI":"10.1596\/10005"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/153249802753365296","article-title":"Man-made deserts: Desertization processes and threats","volume":"16","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arid Land Res. Manag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1997.0078","article-title":"Degradation and resilience of soils [and discussion]","volume":"352","author":"Lal","year":"1997","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedelty, J., Devadiga, S., Masuoka, E., Brown, M., Pinzon, J., Roy, D., Vermote, E., Prince, S., Nagol, J., and Justice, C. (2007, January 23\u201328). Generating a long-term land data record from the AVHRR and MODIS instruments. Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2007.4422974"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Rishmawi, K.N. (2013). Spatial Patterns and Potential Mechanisms of Land Degradation in the Sahel. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maryland]."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.10.007","article-title":"Effects of atmospheric variation on AVHRR NDVI data","volume":"113","author":"Nagol","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) (2005). Gridded Population of the World Population Density Grid, Centro Internacional De Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Available online: http:\/\/sedac.Ciesin.Columbia.Edu\/gpw."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramankutty, N., Evan, A.T., Monfreda, C., and Foley, J.A. (2008). Farming the planet: 1. Geographic distribution of global agricultural lands in the year 2000. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles, 22.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GB002952"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"745","article-title":"The food and agriculture organization\u2019s gridded livestock of the world","volume":"43","author":"Robinson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Jahnke, H.E. (1982). Livestock Production Systems and Livestock Development in Tropical Africa, Kieler Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1071\/EA9750045","article-title":"Comparison of the diets of goats and sheep on a Casuarina cristata-Heterodendrum oleifolium woodland community in western New South Wales","volume":"15","author":"Wilson","year":"1975","journal-title":"Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.2527\/jas1986.6341078x","article-title":"The voluntary forage intake and nutrition of goats and sheep in the semi-arid tropics of northeastern Brazil","volume":"63","author":"Pfister","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"383","article-title":"Diet selection by sheep and goats on Mediterranean heath-woodland range","volume":"1998","author":"Franch","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Range Manag."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Devendra, C. (1990). Shrubs and Tree Fodders for Farm Animals, IDRC."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02619","article-title":"Global patterns in human consumption of net primary production","volume":"429","author":"Imhoff","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"FAO, IIASA, ISRIC, ISSCAS, and JRC (2009). Harmonized World Soil Database, IIASA. version 1.1."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-2743.2009.00202.x","article-title":"Harmonized soil profile data for applications at global and continental scales: Updates to the WISE database","volume":"25","author":"Batjes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soil Use Manag."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keefer, R. (2000). Handbook of Soils for Landscape Architects, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195121025.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"189","article-title":"A soil erodibility nomograph for farmland and construction sites","volume":"26","author":"Wischmeier","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1175\/1087-3562(2003)007<0001:GPTCAA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global percent tree cover at a spatial resolution of 500 meters: First results of the MODIS Vegetation Continuous Fields algorithm","volume":"7","author":"Hansen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Earth Interact."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Dielman, T.E. (2005). Applied Regression Analysis: A Second Course in Business and Economic Statistics, Brooks\/Cole Thomson Learning."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Freund, R., and Wilson, W.J. (1998). Regression Analysis: Statistical Modeling of a Response Variable, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1974.10489231","article-title":"Regressions by leaps and bounds","volume":"16","author":"Furnival","year":"1974","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/asr052","article-title":"Wild bootstrap for quantile regression","volume":"98","author":"Feng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Press, W.H., Teukolsky, S.A., Vetterling, W.T., and Flannery, B.P. (1998). Numerical Recipes in C, the Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.022","article-title":"Limits to detectability of land degradation by trend analysis of vegetation index data","volume":"125","author":"Wessels","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7337","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JD901105","article-title":"Statistical significance of trends and trend differences in layer-average atmospheric temperature time series","volume":"105","author":"Santer","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-005-0054-1","article-title":"Newer classification and regression tree techniques: Bagging and random forests for ecological prediction","volume":"9","author":"Prasad","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Dynamic causal patterns of desertification","volume":"54","author":"Geist","year":"2004","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02393838","article-title":"A new method for predicting vegetation distributions using decision tree analysis in a geographic information system","volume":"15","author":"Moore","year":"1991","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Breiman, L., Friedman, J.H., Olshen, R.A., and Stone, C.J. (1984). Classification and Regression Trees, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007682208299","article-title":"Randomizing outputs to increase prediction accuracy","volume":"40","author":"Breiman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G04015","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JG000718","article-title":"Interannual variability of photosynthesis across Africa and its attribution","volume":"113","author":"Williams","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-1027-2009","article-title":"Precipitation as driver of carbon fluxes in 11 African ecosystems","volume":"6","author":"Merbold","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4902","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1013100108","article-title":"Climatological determinants of woody cover in Africa","volume":"108","author":"Good","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12133","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1509645112","article-title":"On regreening and degradation in Sahelian watersheds","volume":"112","author":"Kaptue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5020664","article-title":"Assessing land degradation\/recovery in the African Sahel from long-term earth observation based primary productivity and precipitation relationships","volume":"5","author":"Fensholt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00140514","article-title":"Rainfall and foliar dynamics in tropical southern Africa: Potential impacts of global climatic change on savanna vegetation","volume":"33","author":"Fuller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2006.01739.x","article-title":"Below-ground bud banks increase along a precipitation gradient of the North American Great Plains: A test of the meristem limitation hypothesis","volume":"171","author":"Dalgleish","year":"2006","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.2307\/2404952","article-title":"Estimating the effects of land degradation and rainfall variation on productivity in rangelands: An approach using remote sensing and models of grazing and herbage dynamics","volume":"33","author":"Pickup","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Luxereau, A., and Roussel, B. (1997). Changements Economiques et Sociaux au Niger, Hamattan."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Issaka, M. (2001). Evolution of Long Term Fertility in the Soils of the Maradi Region, Drylands Research. Working Paper 30."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Moussa, B. (2000). Management of Natural Resources and the Evaluation of Agrarian Systems in the Maradi Region, Drylands Research. Working Paper 28."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Mahamane, A. (2001). Land Use and the Evolution of Agriculture in the Department of Maradi, Drylands Research. Working Paper 27."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Mortimore, M., Tiffen, M., and Boubacar, Y. (2001). Synthesis of Long-Term Change in Kano-Maradi Departments, Nigeria and Niger, 1960\u20132000, Drylands Research. Working Paper 39."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Faye, A., Fall, A., and Tiffen, M. (2001). Drylands Working Papers: Region of Diourbel Synthesis Report, Drylands Research. Working Paper 23."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Ba, M. (2001). Cartographie des Changements D\u2019occupation-Utilization du sol Dans la Zone Agricole du Senegal Occidental, Region de Diourbel, Drylands Research. Working Paper 21."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2004.03.018","article-title":"Ecoregions and land cover trends in Senegal","volume":"59","author":"Tappan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4048","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70404048","article-title":"What four decades of Earth observation tell us about land degradation in the Sahel?","volume":"7","author":"Mbow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.09.011","article-title":"Re-greening Sahel: 30 years of remote sensing data and field observations (Mali, Niger)","volume":"140","author":"Dardel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12807","article-title":"Ground- and satellite-based evidence of the biophysical mechanisms behind the greening Sahel","volume":"21","author":"Brandt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-469-2009","article-title":"Disentangling the effects of climate and people on Sahel vegetation dynamics","volume":"6","author":"Seaquist","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2011.01.006","article-title":"Water availability as the driver of vegetation dynamics in the African Sahel from 1982 to 2007","volume":"76","author":"Huber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2068","DOI":"10.1126\/science.289.5487.2068","article-title":"Climate extremes: Observations, modeling, and impacts","volume":"289","author":"Easterling","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.01.032","article-title":"Trends in productivity of crops, fallow and rangelands in southwest Niger: Impact of land use, management and variable rainfall","volume":"375","author":"Hiernaux","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"192","article-title":"Dryland degradation in central Sudan and conservation for survival","volume":"20","author":"Olsson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2699.1998.252244.x","article-title":"Land crisis on the Mambila plateau of Nigeria, West Africa","volume":"25","author":"Hurault","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Daily, G.C., Alexander, S., Ehrlich, P.R., Goulder, L., Lubchenco, J., Matson, P.A., Mooney, H.A., Postel, S., Schneider, S.H., and Tilman, D. (1997). Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems, Ecological Society of America."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breckle, S., Veste, M., and Wucherer, W. (2002). Sustainable Land Use in Deserts, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-59560-8"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1029\/WR009i002p00336","article-title":"Splash erosion related to soil erodibility indexes and other forest soil properties in Hawaii","volume":"9","author":"Yamamoto","year":"1973","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"183","article-title":"Soil physical variability in relation to soil erodibility under different land uses in foothills of siwaliks in N-W India","volume":"51","author":"Gupta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"180","article-title":"Erodibility of some Minnesota soils","volume":"32","author":"Young","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.2307\/3896384","article-title":"Infiltration and soil erosion as influenced by vegetation and soil in northern Utah","volume":"23","author":"Meeuwissakaig","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Range Manag."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1998)079<0815:DDASVA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Desertification, drought, and surface vegetation: An example from the West African Sahel","volume":"79","author":"Nicholson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.01.043","article-title":"Woody plant population dynamics in response to climate changes from 1984 to 2006 in Sahel (Gourma, Mali)","volume":"375","author":"Hiernaux","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1082750","article-title":"Climate-driven increases in global terrestrial net primary production from 1982 to 1999","volume":"300","author":"Nemani","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2001GB001441","article-title":"Impact of atmospheric aerosol light scattering and absorption on terrestrial net primary productivity","volume":"16","author":"Cohan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-003-0189-x","article-title":"Remotely sensed interannual variations and trends in terrestrial net primary productivity 1981\u20132000","volume":"7","author":"Cao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-31.2.113","article-title":"The globalization of nitrogen deposition: Consequences for terrestrial ecosystems","volume":"31","author":"Matson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ambio"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/11\/948\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:35:27Z","timestamp":1760211327000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/8\/11\/948"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,13]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs8110948"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs8110948","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,13]]}}}