{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T06:25:13Z","timestamp":1774592713898,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,23]],"date-time":"2017-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1490227200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visible and near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (VIS-NIR) has shown levels of accuracy comparable to conventional laboratory methods for estimating soil properties. Soil chemical and physical properties have been predicted by reflectance spectroscopy successfully on subtropical and temperate soils, whereas soils from tropical agro-forest regions have received less attention, especially those from tropical rainforests. A spectral characterization provides a proficient pathway for soil characterization. The first step in this process is to develop a comprehensive VIS-NIR soil library of multiple key soil properties to be used in future soil surveys. This paper presents the first VIS-NIR soil library for a remote region in the Central Amazon. We evaluated the performance of VIS-NIR for the prediction of soil properties in the Central Amazon, Brazil. Soil properties measured and predicted were: pH, Ca, Mg, Al, H, H+Al, P, organic C (SOC), sum of bases, cation exchange capacity (CEC), percentage of base saturation (V), Al saturation (m), clay, sand, silt, silt\/clay (S\/C), and degree of flocculation. Soil samples were scanned in the laboratory in the VIS-NIR range (350\u20132500 nm), and forty-one pre-processing methods were tested to improve predictions. Clay content was predicted with the highest accuracy, followed by SOC. Sand, S\/C, H, Al, H+Al, CEC, m and V predictions were reasonably good. The other soil properties were poorly predicted. Among the soil properties predicted well, SOC is one of the critical soil indicators in the global carbon cycle. Besides the soil property of interest, the landscape position, soil order and depth influenced in the model performance. For silt content, pH and S\/C, the model performed better in well-drained soils, whereas for SOC best predictions were obtained in poorly drained soils. The association of VIS-NIR spectral data to landforms, vegetation classes, and soil types demonstrate potential for soil characterization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9040293","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,23]],"date-time":"2017-03-23T11:47:59Z","timestamp":1490269679000},"page":"293","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":125,"title":["Prediction of Soil Physical and Chemical Properties by Visible and Near-Infrared Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy in the Central Amazon"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"\u00c9rika","family":"Pinheiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Solos, Instituto de Agronomia, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, km 7, Serop\u00e9dica 23890-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Marcos","family":"Ceddia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Solos, Instituto de Agronomia, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, km 7, Serop\u00e9dica 23890-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7925-1117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher","family":"Clingensmith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pedometrics, Landscape Analysis, and GIS Laboratory, Soil and Water Science Department, University of Florida, 2181 McCarty Hall A, P.O. Box 110290, Gainesville, FL 32611-0290, USA"}]},{"given":"Sabine","family":"Grunwald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pedometrics, Landscape Analysis, and GIS Laboratory, Soil and Water Science Department, University of Florida, 2181 McCarty Hall A, P.O. Box 110290, Gainesville, FL 32611-0290, USA"}]},{"given":"Gustavo","family":"Vasques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Embrapa Solos, Rua Jardim Bot\u00e2nico, 1024, Rio de Janeiro 22460-000, RJ, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.agron.2014.12.004","article-title":"Fusion of soil and remote sensing data to model soil properties","volume":"Volume 131","author":"Sparks","year":"2015","journal-title":"Advances in Agronomy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2008.0015","article-title":"Visible\/near-infrared spectroscopy modeling of dynamic soil carbon fractions","volume":"73","author":"Vasques","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2009.11.032","article-title":"Measuring soil organic carbon in croplands at regional scale using airborne imaging spectroscopy","volume":"158","author":"Stevens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparing predictions of soil organic carbon by field Vis-NIR Spectroscopy and hyper spectral remote sensing","volume":"10","author":"Gomez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Abstr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2006.07.004","article-title":"Determining the composition of mineral-organic mixes using UV-vis-NIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopy","volume":"137","author":"McGlynn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0269-7491(01)00259-7","article-title":"The potential of diffuse reflectance spectroscopy for the determination of carbon inventories in soils","volume":"116","author":"Reeves","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2009.04.005","article-title":"Near- versus mid-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy for soil analysis emphasizing carbon and laboratory versus on-site analysis: Where are we and what needs to be done?","volume":"158","author":"Reeves","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1080\/00103620600819461","article-title":"Can near- or mid-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy be used to determine soil carbon pools?","volume":"37","author":"Reeves","year":"2006","journal-title":"Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2005.0159","article-title":"Determination of clay and other soil properties by near infrared spectroscopy","volume":"69","author":"Sorensen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemolab.2004.12.011","article-title":"Performance of some variable selection methods when multicollinearity is present","volume":"78","author":"Chong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2003.0285","article-title":"Spectral reflectance methodology in comparison to soil analysis","volume":"70","author":"Nanni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2016.01.012","article-title":"Global spectral library to characterize the world\u2019s soil","volume":"155","author":"Behrens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2014.03.004","article-title":"Holistic environmental soil landscape modeling of soil organic carbon","volume":"57","author":"Xiong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.03.121","article-title":"Spatial variability of soil carbon stock in the Urucu river basin, Central Amazon-Brazil","volume":"526","author":"Ceddia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Reis, N.J., Almeida, M.E., Rikes, S.L., and Ferreira, A.L. (2006). Geologia e Recursos Minerais do Estado do Amazonas, Servi\u00e7o Geol\u00f3gico do Brasil."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Maia, R.G.N., Godoy, H.K., Yamaguti, H.S., Moura, P.A., Costa, F.S.F., Holanda, M.A., and Costa, J.A. (1977). Projeto Carv\u00e3o no Alto Solim\u00f5es, Servi\u00e7o Geol\u00f3gico do Brasil."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Villela, A.L.O. (2013). Mapeamento Digital de Solos da Forma\u00e7\u00e3o Solim\u00f5es Sob Floresta Tropical Amaz\u00f4nica. [Ph.D. Thesis, Agronomia-Ci\u00eancia do Solo, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro]."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Embrapa (2013). Sistema Brasileiro de Classifica\u00e7\u00e3o de Solos, Bras\u00edlia. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"United States Department of Agriculture (1999). Soil Taxonomy. A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Embrapa (1997). Manual de M\u00e9todos de An\u00e1lise de Solo, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Solos. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Mehlich, A. (1953). Determination of P, Ca, Mg, K, Na, and NH4, North Carolina Soil Test Division."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-193401000-00003","article-title":"An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method","volume":"37","author":"Walkley","year":"1934","journal-title":"Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2009.07.007","article-title":"Review of the most common pre-processing techniques for near-infrared spectra","volume":"28","author":"Rinnan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1964.tb00553.x","article-title":"An Analysis of Transformations","volume":"26","author":"Box","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Estatcamp\u00ae Portal Action: Software Action. Available online: http:\/\/www.portalaction.com.br\/content\/sobre-o-action."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Johnson, R.A., and Wichern, D.W. (2007). Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, Pearson Education Inc.. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2005.03.007","article-title":"Visible, near infrared, mid infrared or combined diffuse reflectance spectroscopy for simultaneous assessment of various soil properties","volume":"131","author":"Walvoort","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2008.04.007","article-title":"Comparison of multivariate methods for inferential modeling of soil carbon using visible\/near-infrared spectra","volume":"146","author":"Vasques","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Mevik, B.-H. VIP.R: Implementation of VIP (Variable Importance in Projection) for the \u2018pls\u2019 Package. Available online: http:\/\/mevik.net\/work\/software\/VIP.R."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Van Wambeke, A. (1992). Soils of the Tropics\u2014Properties and Appraisal, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Stevenson, F.J. (1994). Humus Chemistry: Genesis, Composition, Reaction, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2015.04.017","article-title":"Spectral libraries for quantitative analysis of tropical Brazillian soils: Comparing VIS-NIR and MIR reflecytance data","volume":"255\u2013256","author":"Terra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.13031\/2013.27385","article-title":"Wavelength identification and diffuse reflectance estimation for surface and profile soil properties","volume":"52","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2011.02.019","article-title":"Near-infrared (NIR) and mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopic techniques for assessing the amount of carbon stocks in soils\u2014Critical review and research perspectives","volume":"43","author":"McBratney","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2009.04.010","article-title":"Simulated in situ characterization of soil organic and inorganic carbon with visible near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy","volume":"151","author":"Morgan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1071\/EA97144","article-title":"Can mid infra-red diffuse reflectance analysis replace soil extractions?","volume":"38","author":"Janik","year":"1998","journal-title":"Aust. J. Exp. Agric."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ara\u00fajo, S.R., S\u00f6derstr\u00f6m, M., Eriksson, J., Isendahl, C., Stenborg, P., and Dematt\u00ea, J.M. (2015). Determining soil properties in Amazonian Dark Earths by reflectance spectroscopy. Geoderma, 237\u2013238.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2014.09.014"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1071\/SR02027","article-title":"Artificial neural network analysis of laboratory and in situ spectra for the estimation of macronutrients in soils of Lop Buri (Thailand)","volume":"41","author":"Daniel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. J. Soil Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1071\/SR04182","article-title":"Ultra-violet, visible, near-infra-red, and mid-infra-red diffuse reflectance spectroscopic techniques to predict several soil properties","volume":"43","author":"Pirie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aust. J. Soil Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2389.2009.01121.x","article-title":"Improved analysis and modeling of soil diffuse reflectance spectra using wavelets","volume":"60","author":"Lark","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2009.12.025","article-title":"Using data mining to model and interpret soil diffuse reflectance spectra","volume":"158","author":"Behrens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2001.652480x","article-title":"Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy-principal components regression analysis of soil properties","volume":"65","author":"Chang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2002.9880","article-title":"Development of reflectance spectral libraries for characterization of soil properties","volume":"66","author":"Shepherd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021859602002836","article-title":"The potential of near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy to analyse soil chemical and physical characteristics","volume":"140","author":"Cozzolino","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12653","DOI":"10.1029\/JB095iB08p12653","article-title":"High spectral resolution reflectance spectroscopy of minerals","volume":"95","author":"Clark","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1440721","article-title":"Spectral signatures of particulate minerals in the visible and near infrared","volume":"42","author":"Hunt","year":"1977","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1992.03615995005600030031x","article-title":"High dimensional reflectance analysis of soil organic matter","volume":"56","author":"Henderson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2007.12.009","article-title":"Laboratory, field, and airbone spectroscopy for monitoring organic carbon content in agricultural soils","volume":"144","author":"Stevens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2009.0314","article-title":"Spectroscopic models of soil organic carbon in Florida, USA","volume":"39","author":"Vasques","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1999.03615995006300020010x","article-title":"Alteration of soil properties through a weathering sequence as evaluated by spectral reflectance","volume":"63","author":"Garcia","year":"1999","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2003.09.012","article-title":"Visible-NIR reflectance: A new approach on soil evaluation","volume":"121","author":"Campos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"23","article-title":"Visible and infrared spectra of minerals and rocks: II. Carbonate","volume":"2","author":"Hunt","year":"1970","journal-title":"Mod. Geol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1071\/SR9910049","article-title":"Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT) Spectroscopy in soil studies","volume":"29","author":"Nguyen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Aust. J. Soil Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/4\/293\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:31:09Z","timestamp":1760207469000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/4\/293"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,23]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9040293"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9040293","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,23]]}}}