{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:12:49Z","timestamp":1760242369964,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,18]],"date-time":"2017-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1495065600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inhomogenities in the sea ice motion field cause deformation zones, such as leads, cracks and pressure ridges. Due to their long and often narrow shape, those structures are referred to as Linear Kinematic Features (LKFs). In this paper we specifically address the identification and characterization of variations and discontinuities in the spatial distribution of the total deformation, which appear as LKFs. The distribution of LKFs in the ice cover of the polar oceans is an important factor influencing the exchange of heat and matter at the ocean-atmosphere interface. Current analyses of the sea ice deformation field often ignore the spatial\/geographical context of individual structures, e.g., their orientation relative to adjacent deformation zones. In this study, we adapt image processing techniques to develop a method for LKF detection which is able to resolve individual features. The data are vectorized to obtain results on an object-based level. We then apply a semantic postprocessing step to determine the angle of junctions and between crossing structures. The proposed object detection method is carefully validated. We found a localization uncertainty of 0.75 pixel and a length error of 12% in the identified LKFs. The detected features can be individually traced to their geographical position. Thus, a wide variety of new metrics for ice deformation can be easily derived, including spatial parameters as well as the temporal stability of individual features.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9050493","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,23]],"date-time":"2017-05-23T01:47:33Z","timestamp":1495504053000},"page":"493","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Object-Based Detection of Linear Kinematic Features in Sea Ice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Stefanie","family":"Linow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany"}]},{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Dierking","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany"},{"name":"Centre for Integrated Remote Sensing and Forecasting for Arctic Operations, University of Troms\u00f8, 9037 Troms\u00f8, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3189\/S0022143000007061","article-title":"Two-dimensional deformation patterns in sea ice","volume":"34","author":"Erlingsson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C07016","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JC002108","article-title":"Compressive shear faults within arctic sea ice: Fracture on scales large and small","volume":"109","author":"Schulson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-10-1055-2016","article-title":"neXtSIM: A new Lagrangian sea ice model","volume":"10","author":"Rampal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178501","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.93.178501","article-title":"Scale Dependence and Localization of the Deformation of Arctic Sea Ice","volume":"93","author":"Marsan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C01002","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JC006961","article-title":"Subsynoptic scale spatial variability of sea ice deformation in the western Weddell Sea during early summer","volume":"117","author":"Hutchings","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2202666","article-title":"A Sea-Ice Lead Detection Algorithm for Use With High-Resolution Airborne Visible Imagery","volume":"51","author":"Onana","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3189\/2015AoG69A615","article-title":"Pan-Arctic lead detection from MODIS thermal infrared imagery","volume":"56","author":"Willmes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4533","DOI":"10.1029\/94JC02393","article-title":"Arctic sea ice leads from advanced very high resolution radiometer images","volume":"100","author":"Lindsay","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6021451","article-title":"A Nine-Year Climatology of Arctic Sea Ice Lead Orientation and Frequency from AMSR-E","volume":"6","author":"Kaleschke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21723","DOI":"10.1029\/98JC01997","article-title":"A 5-year satellite climatology of winter sea ice leads in the western Arctic","volume":"103","author":"Miles","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.1990.573005","article-title":"Extraction of Lead and Ridge Characteristics from SAR Images of Sea Ice","volume":"28","author":"Vesecky","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Vesecky, J.F., Smith, M.P., and Samadani, R. (1990, January 20\u201324). Remote Sensing of Pressure Ridge and Lead Characteristics Using Sar Images of Sea Ice. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, College Park, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3610","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.903711","article-title":"Sea Ice Deformation State From Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery\u2014Part I: Comparison of C- and L-Band and Different Polarization","volume":"45","author":"Dierking","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/48.46835","article-title":"An Ice Motion Tracking System at the Alaska SAR Facility","volume":"15","author":"Kwok","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3137\/ao.410103","article-title":"Sea Ice Deformation Rates From Satellite Measurements and in a Model","volume":"41","author":"Lindsay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.11.015","article-title":"Declassified high-resolution visible imagery for Arctic sea ice investigations: An overview","volume":"142","author":"Kwok","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5845","DOI":"10.1029\/JC087iC08p05845","article-title":"Sea ice motion in response to geostrophic winds","volume":"87","author":"Thorndike","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-9-663-2015","article-title":"On producing sea ice deformation data sets from SAR-derived sea ice motion","volume":"9","author":"Bouillon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weiss, J. (2013). Drift, Deformation and Fracture of Sea Ice. A Perspective Across Scales, Springer Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-6202-2"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC005182","article-title":"Evaluation of high-resolution sea ice models on the basis of statistical and scaling properties of Arctic sea ice drift and deformation","volume":"114","author":"Girard","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1986.4767851","article-title":"A computational approach to edge detection","volume":"8","author":"Canny","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Machine Intell."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1980.0020","article-title":"Theory of Edge Detection","volume":"207","author":"Marr","year":"1980","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"239","article-title":"Principles for Automatic Scale Selection","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Lindeberg","year":"1999","journal-title":"Handbook on Computer Vision and Applications"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2010.161","article-title":"Contour detection and hierarchical image segmentation","volume":"33","author":"Arbelaez","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szeliski, R. (2011). Computer Vision\u2014Algorithms and Applications, Springer. Texts in Computer Science.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-935-0"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Gonzalez, R.C., and Woods, R.E. (2006). Digital Image Processing, Prentice-Hall, Inc.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1109\/34.659930","article-title":"An Unbiased Detector of Curvilinear Structures","volume":"20","author":"Steger","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2006.09.002","article-title":"Road tracking in aerial images based on human-computer interaction and Bayesian filtering","volume":"61","author":"Zhou","year":"2006","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.10.004","article-title":"Delineation and geometric modeling of road networks","volume":"65","author":"Poullis","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maire, M., Arbel\u00e1ez, P., Fowlkes, C., and Malik, J. (2008, January 23\u201328). Using contours to detect and localize junctions in natural images. Proceedings of the Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2008.4587420"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Press, W.H., Teukolsky, S.A., Vetterling, W.T., and Flannery, B.P. (2007). Numerical Recipes 3rd Edition: The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"John, H., and Steele, E. (2001). Polynyas. Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2004.1273918","article-title":"Learning to detect natural image boundaries using local brightness, color, and texture cues","volume":"26","author":"Martin","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2544861","article-title":"Object-based Arctic sea ice ridge detection from high-spatial-resolution imagery","volume":"13","author":"Miao","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C11012","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC004783","article-title":"Variability of sea ice simulations assessed with RGPS kinematics","volume":"113","author":"Kwok","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7598","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL065462","article-title":"Sea ice convergence along the Arctic coasts of Greenland and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago: Variability and extremes (1992\u20132014)","volume":"42","author":"Kwok","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/5\/493\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:36:12Z","timestamp":1760207772000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/5\/493"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,18]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9050493"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9050493","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,18]]}}}