{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T19:03:54Z","timestamp":1774551834076,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,8]],"date-time":"2017-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1499472000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coral reefs play a key role in coastal protection and habitat provision. They are also well known for their recreational value. Attempts to protect these ecosystems have not successfully stopped large-scale degradation. Significant efforts have been made by government and research organizations to ensure that coral reefs are monitored systematically to gain a deeper understanding of the causes, the effects and the extent of threats affecting coral reefs. However, further research is needed to fully understand the importance that sampling design has on coral reef characterization and assessment. This study examines the effect that sampling design has on the estimation of seascape metrics when coupling semi-autonomous underwater vehicles, structure-from-motion photogrammetry techniques and high resolution (0.4 cm) underwater imagery. For this purpose, we use FRAGSTATS v4 to estimate key seascape metrics that enable quantification of the area, density, edge, shape, contagion, interspersion and diversity of sessile organisms for a range of sampling scales (0.5 m \u00d7 0.5 m, 2 m \u00d7 2 m, 5 m \u00d7 5 m, 7 m \u00d7 7 m), quadrat densities (from 1\u2013100 quadrats) and sampling strategies (nested vs. random) within a 1655 m2 case study area in Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve (Mozambique). Results show that the benthic community is rather disaggregated within a rocky matrix; the embedded patches frequently have a small size and a regular shape; and the population is highly represented by soft corals. The genus Acropora is the more frequent and shows bigger colonies in the group of hard corals. Each of the seascape metrics has specific requirements of the sampling scale and quadrat density for robust estimation. Overall, the majority of the metrics were accurately identified by sampling scales equal to or coarser than 5 m \u00d7 5 m and quadrat densities equal to or larger than 30. The study indicates that special attention needs to be dedicated to the design of coral reef monitoring programmes, with decisions being based on the seascape metrics and statistics being determined. The results presented here are representative of the eastern South Africa coral reefs and are expected to be transferable to coral reefs with similar characteristics. The work presented here is limited to one study site and further research is required to confirm the findings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,10]],"date-time":"2017-07-10T11:05:31Z","timestamp":1499684731000},"page":"705","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["High Resolution Orthomosaics of African Coral Reefs: A Tool for Wide-Scale Benthic Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8658-9511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Palma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell\u2019Ambiente (DISVA), Via Brecce Bianche, Monte Dago, 60130 Ancona, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4169-3099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monica","family":"Rivas Casado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cranfield Institute for Resilient Futures, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK430AL, UK"}]},{"given":"Ubaldo","family":"Pantaleo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell\u2019Ambiente (DISVA), Via Brecce Bianche, Monte Dago, 60130 Ancona, Italy"},{"name":"UBICA srl (Underwater BIo-CArtography), Via San Siro 6\/1, 16124 Genova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9580-5546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlo","family":"Cerrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell\u2019Ambiente (DISVA), Via Brecce Bianche, Monte Dago, 60130 Ancona, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hilmi, N., Bambridge, T., Claudet, J., David, G., Failler, P., Feral, F., Leopold, M., Pascal, N., and Safa, A. (2014). Pr\u00e9server la biodiversit\u00e9 des r\u00e9cifs coralliens: l\u2019\u00e9valuation \u00e9conomique comme outil d\u2019une gouvernance multi-\u00e9chelle. Les Sciences Sociales dans le Pacifique Sud : Terrains, Questions et M\u00e9thodes, Pacific-Credo Publications (Cahiers du Credo).","DOI":"10.4000\/books.pacific.497"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2012.11.031","article-title":"Economic valuation of ecosystem services from coral reefs in the South Pacific: Taking stock of recent experience","volume":"116","author":"Laurans","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2016.01.001","article-title":"Economic value of a large marine ecosystem: Danajon double barrier reef, Philippines","volume":"122","author":"Samonte","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seenprachawong, U. (2016). An economic analysis of coral reefs in the Andaman Sea of Thailand. Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Valuation, Institutions, and Policy in Southeast Asia, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-0141-3_3"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Assessment, M.E. (2003). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, World Resources Institute."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoser.2016.07.005","article-title":"Economic valuation of coral reef ecosystem service of coastal protection: A pragmatic approach","volume":"21","author":"Pascal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecosyst. Serv."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1890\/10-1510.1","article-title":"The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services","volume":"81","author":"Barbier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Wilkinson, C.R., and Souter, D.N. (2008). Status of Caribbean Coral Reefs after Bleaching and Hurricanes in 2005, Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M., and Perry, A. (2011). Reefs at Risk Revisited, World Resources Institute."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316105412.038","article-title":"36 Perpetual struggle for conservation in a crowded world and the needed paradigm shift for easing ultimate burdens","volume":"Volume 20","author":"Mora","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13593","article-title":"The threat to coral reefs from more intense cyclones under climate change","volume":"23","author":"Cheal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (2017, April 15). Hong Kong Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan 2016\u20132021, Available online: https:\/\/www.afcd.gov.hk\/tc_chi\/conservation\/Con_hkbsap\/files\/HKBSAP_ENG_2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Rivero, M., Beijbom, O., Rodriguez-Ramirez, A., Holtrop, T., Gonz\u00e1lez-Marrero, Y., Ganase, A., Roelfsema, C., Phinn, S., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2016). Scaling up Ecological Measurements of Coral Reefs Using Semi-Automated Field Image Collection and Analysis. Remote Sens.-Basel, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8010030"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s11284-015-1268-0","article-title":"Total volume of 3D small patch reefs reflected in aerial photographs can predict total species richness of coral reef damselfish assemblages on a shallow back reef","volume":"30","author":"Hattori","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hedley, J.D., Roelfsema, C.M., Chollett, I., Harborne, A.R., Heron, S.F., Weeks, S., Skirving, W.J., Strong, A.E., Eakin, C.M., and Christensen, T.R. (2016). Remote sensing of coral reefs for monitoring and management: A review. Remote Sens.-Basel, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8020118"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beijbom, O., Edmunds, P.J., Kline, D.I., Mitchell, B.G., and Kriegman, D. (2012, January 16\u201321). Automated annotation of coral reef survey images. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Providence Rhode Island Convention Center Providence, RI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2012.6247798"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friedman, A., Pizarro, O., Williams, S.B., and Johnson-Roberson, M. (2012). Multi-scale measures of rugosity, slope and aspect from benthic stereo image reconstructions. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050440"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2011.2181772","article-title":"Monitoring of benthic reference sites: using an autonomous underwater vehicle","volume":"19","author":"Williams","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13197","article-title":"Quantifying the response of structural complexity and community composition to environmental change in marine communities","volume":"22","author":"Ferrari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.01.015","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of airborne LiDAR and ship-based multibeam SoNAR bathymetry and intensity for mapping coral reef ecosystems","volume":"113","author":"Costa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17995","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1208909109","article-title":"The 27-year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes","volume":"109","author":"Fabricius","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2013.09.018","article-title":"Object-based benthic habitat mapping in the Florida Keys from hyperspectral imagery","volume":"134","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-015-1258-2","article-title":"Prediction of coral bleaching in the Florida Keys using remotely sensed data","volume":"34","author":"Barnes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.3354\/meps11378","article-title":"Spatial scale and geographic context in benthic habitat mapping: Review and future directions","volume":"535","author":"Lecours","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.01.030","article-title":"Measuring coral reef terrain roughness using \u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019close-range photogrammetry","volume":"242","author":"Leon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-016-1462-8","article-title":"End of the chain? Rugosity and fine-scale bathymetry from existing underwater digital imagery using structure-from-motion (SfM) technology","volume":"35","author":"Storlazzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16883","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71215859","article-title":"Accuracy and precision of habitat structural complexity metrics derived from underwater photogrammetry","volume":"7","author":"Figueira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens.-Basel"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrivick, J.L., Smith, M.W., and Quincey, D.J. (2016). Structure from Motion in the Geosciences, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118895818"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"\u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019 photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s11457-014-9127-7","article-title":"Multi-image photogrammetry for underwater archaeological site recording: An accessible, diver-based approach","volume":"9","author":"McCarthy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Marit. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"269","article-title":"Mapping coral reefs using consumer-grade drones and structure from motion photogrammetry techniques","volume":"1","author":"Casella","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.2505","article-title":"The Catlin Seaview Survey\u2013kilometre-scale seascape assessment, and monitoring of coral reef ecosystems","volume":"24","author":"Bongaerts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mio.2016.04.001","article-title":"Assessing the impact of acute disturbances on the structure and composition of a coral community using innovative 3D reconstruction techniques","volume":"15","author":"Burns","year":"2016","journal-title":"Method Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.2654","article-title":"Drones that see through waves\u2013preliminary results from airborne fluid lensing for centimetre-scale aquatic conservation","volume":"26","author":"Chirayath","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv.: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1002\/lom3.10017","article-title":"Simple methods for interactive 3D modeling, measurements, and digital databases of coral skeletons","volume":"13","author":"Reynaud","year":"2015","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr.: Methods"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12331","article-title":"A quick, easy and non-intrusive method for underwater volume and surface area evaluation of benthic organisms by 3D computer modelling","volume":"6","author":"Lavy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.3354\/meps09051","article-title":"Seascape ecology of coastal biogenic habitats: Advances, gaps, and challenges","volume":"427","author":"Pittman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.3354\/meps09119","article-title":"Quantifying seascape structure: Extending terrestrial spatial pattern metrics to the marine realm","volume":"427","author":"Wedding","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1080\/01490410802053617","article-title":"The influence of thematic and spatial resolution on maps of a coral reef ecosystem","volume":"31","author":"Kendall","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Geod."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007952701795","article-title":"Landscape pattern indices applied to Mediterranean subtidal rocky benthic communities","volume":"13","author":"Garrabou","year":"1998","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1006\/ecss.2001.0920","article-title":"Structure and dynamics of north-western Mediterranean rocky benthic communities along a depth gradient","volume":"55","author":"Garrabou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.es.20.110189.001131","article-title":"Landscape Ecol: The effect of pattern on process","volume":"20","author":"Turner","year":"1989","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pittman, S.J., Costa, B.M., and Battista, T.A. (2009). Using lidar bathymetry and boosted regression trees to predict the diversity and abundance of fish and corals. J. Coast. Res.","DOI":"10.2112\/SI53-004.1"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.01.025","article-title":"Using bathymetric lidar to define nearshore benthic habitat complexity: Implications for management of reef fish assemblages in Hawaii","volume":"112","author":"Wedding","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-007-0306-y","article-title":"Predictability of reef fish diversity and abundance using remote sensing data in Diego Garcia (Chagos Archipelago)","volume":"27","author":"Purkis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Coral reefs"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schleyer, M. (2000). South African coral communities. Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean: Their Ecology and Conservation, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195125962.003.0003"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-3227(94)90060-4","article-title":"Marine geology of the Sodwana Bay shelf, southeast Africa","volume":"120","author":"Ramsay","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1103","article-title":"Quaternary marine geology of the Sodwana Bay continental shelf, Northern KwaZulu-Natal","volume":"11","author":"Ramsay","year":"1996","journal-title":"Oceanogr. Lit. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1071\/MF02049","article-title":"Coral dominance at the reef\u2013sediment interface in marginal coral communities at Sodwana Bay, South Africa","volume":"54","author":"Schleyer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Riegl, B. (1993). Taxonomy and Ecology of South African Reef Corals. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016622030597","article-title":"Recent changes in coral assemblages of a South African coral reef, with recommendations for long-term monitoring","volume":"10","author":"Jordan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3097","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-007-9271-6","article-title":"Coral community structure and risk assessment of high-latitude reefs at Sodwana Bay, South Africa","volume":"17","author":"Celliers","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Robertson, W., Schleyer, M., Fielding, P., Tomalin, B., Beckley, L., Fennessy, S., Van der Elst, R., Bandeira, S., Macia, A., and Gove, D. (1996). Inshore Marine Resources and Associated Opportunities for Development of the Coast of Southern Mozambique: Ponta do Ouro to Cabo de Santa Maria, Oceanographic Research Institute. Unpublished report."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.3354\/meps060291","article-title":"Interspecific competition in Taiwanese corals with special reference to interactions between alcyonaceans and scleractinians","volume":"60","author":"Dai","year":"1990","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00349461","article-title":"Effects of sand deposition on scleractinian and alcyonacean corals","volume":"121","author":"Riegl","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Schumann, E., and Orren, M. (1980). The Physico-Chemical Characteristics of the South-West Indian Ocean in Relation to Maputaland, The Wildlife Society of Southern Africa."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2007.11.011","article-title":"Long-term community changes on a high-latitude coral reef in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, South Africa","volume":"56","author":"Schleyer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Ferraris, D., Palma, M., Pantaleo, U., Cerrano, C., and Chiantore, M. (2017). Method and Device for Tracking the Path of an Object, PCT\/IB2016\/053924."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6367","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2013.800660","article-title":"Mapping coral reefs at reef to reef-system scales, 10s\u20131000s km2, using object-based image analysis","volume":"34","author":"Roelfsema","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3207(99)00067-1","article-title":"Reef classification by coral morphology predicts coral reef conservation value","volume":"92","author":"Edinger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"MacArthur, R.H., and Wilson, E.O. (2015). Theory of Island Biogeography.(MPB-1), Princeton University Press."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"199","article-title":"A comparison of coral reef survey methods","volume":"51","author":"Weinberg","year":"1981","journal-title":"Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"185","article-title":"Hard bottoms","volume":"11","author":"Bianchi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Mar. Mediterr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2013.09.037","article-title":"Application of landscape mosaics for the assessment of subtidal macroalgae communities using the CFR index","volume":"106","author":"Guinda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. II: Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Mcgarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C., and Ene, E. (2002). FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical Maps, Department of Environmental Conservation University of Massachusetts. Technical report."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3354\/meps242001","article-title":"Spatial pattern quantification of Antarctic benthic communities using landscape indices","volume":"242","author":"Teixido","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGarigal, K., and Marks, B.J. (1995). FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure, United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. Gen tech rep pnw-gtr-351.","DOI":"10.2737\/PNW-GTR-351"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dornelas, M., Madin, J.S., Baird, A.H., and Connolly, S.R. (2017). Allometric growth in reef-building corals. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., 284, Available online: http:\/\/rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org\/content\/284\/1851\/20170053.full.pdf.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2017.0053"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008102521322","article-title":"An aggregation index (AI) to quantify spatial patterns of landscapes","volume":"15","author":"He","year":"2000","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.marine.010908.163757","article-title":"Larval dispersal and marine population connectivity","volume":"1","author":"Cowen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-35.1.30","article-title":"Redundancy and response diversity of functional groups: Implications for the resilience of coral reefs","volume":"35","year":"2006","journal-title":"AMBIO: J. Hum. Environ."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1466-822X.2003.00015.x","article-title":"A tribute to Claude Shannon (1916\u20132001) and a plea for more rigorous use of species richness, species diversity and the \u2018Shannon\u2013Wiener\u2019Index","volume":"12","author":"Spellerberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somerfield, P., Clarke, K., and Warwick, R. (2008). Simpson index. Encyclopedia of Ecology, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008045405-4.00133-6"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0302-3524(80)80058-2","article-title":"A study of the small-scale relationship between species number and area on a rocky shore","volume":"10","author":"Hawkins","year":"1980","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1071\/MF04300","article-title":"Measuring fragmentation of seagrass landscapes: Which indices are most appropriate for detecting change?","volume":"56","author":"Sleeman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3354\/meps225045","article-title":"Mega-epibenthic diversity: A polar comparison","volume":"225","author":"Starmans","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s002270050624","article-title":"Mega-epibenthic communities in Arctic and Antarctic shelf areas","volume":"135","author":"Starmans","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"139","article-title":"The functional importance of Acropora austera as nursery areas for juvenile reef fish on South African coral reefs","volume":"1","author":"Floros","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00390728","article-title":"The minimal area problem in invertebrate communities of Mediterranean rocky substrata","volume":"49","author":"Weinberg","year":"1978","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2005.00848.x","article-title":"The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species\u2013area relationships","volume":"9","author":"Drakare","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1474-919X.2001.tb04942.x","article-title":"Species richness estimation of bird communities: How to control for sampling effort?","volume":"143","author":"Walther","year":"2001","journal-title":"IBIS"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.2307\/2261477","article-title":"Species-area and species-individual relationships for tropical trees: A comparison of three 50-ha plots","volume":"84","author":"Condit","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1461-0248.2001.00230.x","article-title":"Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness","volume":"4","author":"Gotelli","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1086\/282996","article-title":"Comparison of species richness for stream-inhabiting insects in tropical and mid-latitude streams","volume":"109","author":"Stout","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am. Nat."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02121","article-title":"Extinction risk from climate change","volume":"427","author":"Thomas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-013-2179-7","article-title":"Biogeographic patterns on shallow subtidal reefs in the western Indian Ocean","volume":"160","author":"Porter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-016-1531-z","article-title":"Long-term dynamics of a high-latitude coral reef community at Sodwana Bay, South Africa","volume":"36","author":"Porter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/7\/705\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:42:02Z","timestamp":1760208122000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/7\/705"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,8]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9070705"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9070705","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,8]]}}}