{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]],"date-time":"2025-11-07T09:18:42Z","timestamp":1762507122573,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,9]],"date-time":"2017-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1499558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNH13ZDA001N-TE"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNH13ZDA001N-TE"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although seasonal and temporal variations in evapotranspiration (ET) in Amazonia have been studied based upon flux-tower data and coarse resolution satellite-based models, ET dynamics over human-impacted landscapes are highly uncertain in this region. In this study, we estimate ET rates from critical land cover types over highly fragmented landscapes in the southern Amazon and characterize the ET dynamics during the dry season using the METRIC (Mapping Evapotranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration) model. METRIC, a Landsat-based ET model, that generates spatially continuous ET estimates at a 30 m spatial resolution widely used for agricultural applications, was adapted to the southern Amazon by using the NDVI indexed reference ET fraction (ETrF) approach. Compared to flux tower-based ET rates, this approach showed an improved performance on the forest ET estimation over the standard METRIC approach, with R2 = 0.73 from R2 = 0.70 and RMSE reduced from 0.77 mm\/day to 0.35 mm\/day. We used this approach integrated into the METRIC procedure to estimate ET rates from primary, regenerated, and degraded forests and pasture in Acre, Rond\u00f4nia, and Mato Grosso, all located in the southern Amazon, during the dry season in 2009. The lowest ET rates occurred in Mato Grosso, the driest region. Acre and Rond\u00f4nia, both located in the southwestern Amazon, had similar ET rates for all land cover types. Dry season ET rates between primary forest and regenerated forest were similar (p &gt; 0.05) in all sites, ranging between 2.5 and 3.4 mm\/day for both forest cover types in the three sites. ET rates from degraded forest in Mato Grosso were significantly lower (p &lt; 0.05) compared to the other forest cover types, with a value of 2.03 mm\/day on average. Pasture showed the lowest ET rates during the dry season at all study sites, with the dry season average ET varying from 1.7 mm\/day in Mato Grosso to 2.8 mm\/day in Acre.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070706","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,10]],"date-time":"2017-07-10T11:05:31Z","timestamp":1499684731000},"page":"706","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Dry Season Evapotranspiration Dynamics over Human-Impacted Landscapes in the Southern Amazon Using the Landsat-Based METRIC Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Kul","family":"Khand","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering Department, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}]},{"given":"Izaya","family":"Numata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geospatial Sciences Center of Excellence, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA"}]},{"given":"Jeppe","family":"Kjaersgaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"South Dakota Water Resources Institute, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Vourlitis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA 92096, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00142225","article-title":"Possible climatic impacts of tropical deforestation","volume":"19","author":"Salati","year":"1991","journal-title":"Climat. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"8072","article-title":"Cloud and rain processes in a biosphere-atimosphere interactions context in the Amazon region","volume":"107","author":"Dias","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(97)00149-2","article-title":"A biophysical process-based estimate of global land surface evapotranspiration using satellite and ancillary data II. Regional and global patterns of seasonal and annual variations","volume":"205","author":"Choudhury","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM557.1","article-title":"Characterization of the global hydrologic cycle from a back-trajectory analysis of atmospheric water vapor","volume":"8","author":"Dirmeyer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1038\/372666a0","article-title":"The role of deep roots in the hydrological and carbon cycles of amazonian forests and pastures","volume":"372","author":"Nepstad","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM587.1","article-title":"What controls evapotranspiration in the amazon basin?","volume":"8","author":"Hasler","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G04021","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JG001179","article-title":"Atmospheric versus vegetation controls of Amazonian tropical rain forest evapotranspiration: Are the wet and seasonally dry rain forests any different?","volume":"115","author":"Costa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"G00B12","article-title":"Patterns of Water and Heat Flux across a Biome Gradient from Tropical Forest to Savanna in Brazil","volume":"114","author":"Manzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-13-00074.1","article-title":"Impact of evapotranspiration on dry season climate in the amazon forest","volume":"27","author":"Harper","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1126\/science.247.4948.1322","article-title":"Amazon deforestation and climate change","volume":"247","author":"Shukla","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Werth, D., and Avissar, R. (2002). The local and global effects of Amazon deforestation. J. Geophys. Res., 107.","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JD000717"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11390","article-title":"Observations of increased tropical rainfall preceded by air passage over forests","volume":"489","author":"Spracklen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-014-0837-1","article-title":"Variations in evapotranspiration and climate for an Amazonian semi-deciduous forest over seasonal, annual, and El Ni\u00f1o cycles","volume":"59","author":"Vourlitis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49711850804","article-title":"Dry season micrometeorology of central Amazonian ranchland","volume":"118","author":"Wright","year":"1992","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vourlitis, G.L., Filho, N.P., Hayashi, M.M.S., Nogueira, J.S., Caseiro, F.T., and Campelo, J.H. (2002). Seasonal variations in the evapotranspiration of a transitional tropical forest of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Water Resour. Res., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2000WR000122"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W03412","DOI":"10.1029\/2006WR005526","article-title":"Energy balance and canopy conductance of a tropical semi-deciduous forest of the southern Amazon Basin","volume":"44","author":"Vourlitis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"81","article-title":"Evaluating evapotranspiration from field crops using airborne radiometry and ground-based meteorological data","volume":"8","author":"Jackson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Irrg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(98)00253-4","article-title":"A remote sensing surface energy balance for land (SEBAL). 1. Formulation","volume":"212","author":"Bastiaanssen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(395)","article-title":"Atellite-Based Energy Balance for Mapping Evapotranspiration with Internalized Calibration (METRIC)\u2014Applications","volume":"133","author":"Allen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-223-2011","article-title":"Mapping daily evapotranspiration at field to continental scales using geostationary and polar orbiting satellite imagery","volume":"15","author":"Anderson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.015","article-title":"Development of a global evapotranspiration algorithm based on modis and global meteorology data","volume":"111","author":"Mu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.02.019","article-title":"Improvements to a modis global terrestrial evapotranspiration algorithm","volume":"115","author":"Mu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(380)","article-title":"Satellite-Based energy balance for Mapping Evapotranspiration with Internalized Calibration (METRIC)\u2014Model","volume":"133","author":"Allen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4011","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.8408","article-title":"Satellite-based ET estimation in agriculture using SEBAL and METRIC","volume":"25","author":"Allen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3267","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-012-0071-8","article-title":"Aerodynamic parameterization of the satellite-based energy balance (METRIC) model for ET estimation in rainfed olive orchards of Andalusia, Spain","volume":"26","author":"Santos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5397","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5105397","article-title":"Estimation of actual evapotranspiration along the Middle Rio Grande of New Mexico using MODIS and Landsat imagery with the METRIC model","volume":"5","author":"Trezza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2014.990645","article-title":"A simple Landsat-MODIS fusion approach for monitoring seasonal evapotranspiration at 30 m spatial resolution","volume":"36","author":"Bhattarai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Numata, I., Khand, K., Kjaergaard, J., Cochrane, M.A., and Silva, S.S. (2017). Evaluation of Landsat-based METRIC modeling to provide high-spatial resolution evapotranspiration estimates for Amazonian forests. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010046"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"265","article-title":"Forest fragmentation and its potential implication in the Brazilian Amazon between 2001 and 2010","volume":"2","author":"Numata","year":"2012","journal-title":"Open J. For."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2485","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-016-1067-3","article-title":"The extent of 2014 forest fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"16","author":"Vedovato","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"INPE (2017, March 01). Monitoramento da covertura florestal da Amaz\u00f4nia por sat\u00e9lites. Sistemas PRODES, DETER, DEGRAD e Queimadas 2007\u20132008. Available online: http:\/\/www.obt.inpe.br\/prodes\/Relatorio_Prodes2008.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"5","article-title":"Comparative measurements and seasonal variations in energy and carbon exchange over forest and pasture in South West Amazonia","volume":"78","author":"Manzi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Tasumi, M. (2003). Progress in Operational Estimation of Regional Evapotranspiration Using Satellite Imagery. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Idaho]."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"279","article-title":"METRIC Mapping Evapotranspiration at High Resolution using Internalized Calibration","volume":"3","author":"Allen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Man. Landsat Satell. Imag."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"3","article-title":"Landsat MSS and TM post-calibration dynamic ranges, exoatmospheric reflectances and at-satellitetemperatures","volume":"1","author":"Markham","year":"1986","journal-title":"EOSAT Landsat Tech. Notes"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"ASCE-EWRI (2005). The ASCE Standardized Reference Evapotranspiration Equation. Report of the ASCE-EWRI Task Committee on Standardization of Reference Evapotranspiration, ASCE."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4028","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.8394","article-title":"Improved methods for estimating monthly and growing season ET using metric applied to moderate resolution satellite imagery","volume":"25","author":"Kjaersgaard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5493","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5115493","article-title":"Ten-year Landsat classification of deforestation and forest degradation in the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"5","author":"Souza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Bastiaanssen, W.G.M. (1995). Regionalization of surface flux densities and moisture indicators in composite terrain: A remote sensing approach under clear skies in Mediterranean cimates. [Ph.D. Thesis, CIP Data Koninklijke Bibliotheek]."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration. Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements, FAO. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Eagelson, P. (1982). Land surface process: Vegetation. Land Surface Process in Atmospheric General Circulation Models, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(00)00123-4","article-title":"Correcting Eddy-Covariance Flux Underestimates over a Grassland","volume":"103","author":"Twine","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(02)00109-0","article-title":"Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites","volume":"113","author":"Wilson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1590\/S0044-59672010000200007","article-title":"Estimativa de \u00e1rea de vegeta\u00e7\u00e3o secund\u00e1ria na Amaz\u00f4nia Legal Brasileira","volume":"40","author":"Almeida","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Amazon."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1175\/EI232.1","article-title":"Regional characterization of pasture changes time and space in Rondonia, Brazil","volume":"11","author":"Numata","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Interact."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2003.00772.x","article-title":"Amazon drought and its implications for forest flammability and tree growth: A basin-wide analysis","volume":"10","author":"Nepsted","year":"2004","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2827","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI4184.1","article-title":"Control of dry season evapotranspiration over the Amazonian forest as inferred from observations at a southern Amazon forest site","volume":"20","author":"Juarez","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-006-0001-9","article-title":"Area and age of secondary forests in Brazilian Amazonia 1978\u20132002: An empirical estimate","volume":"9","author":"Neef","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12088","article-title":"Environmental change and the carbon balance of Amazonian forests","volume":"89","author":"Aragao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6347","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1305499111","article-title":"Abrupt increases in Amazonian tree mortality due to drought-fire interactions","volume":"111","author":"Brando","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"913","article-title":"Fire science for rainforests","volume":"421","author":"Cochrane","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/7\/706\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:42:04Z","timestamp":1760208124000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/7\/706"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,9]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9070706"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9070706","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,9]]}}}