{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T17:49:05Z","timestamp":1776275345447,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,14]],"date-time":"2017-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1499990400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thirty-year (1980\u20132009) tropical cyclone (TC) images from geostationary satellite (GOES, Meteosat, GMS, MTSAT and FY2) infrared sensors covering the Northwestern Pacific were used to build a TC size dataset based on objective models. The models are based on a correlation between the size of TCs, defined as the mean azimuth radius of 34 kt surface winds (R34) and the brightness temperature radial profiles derived from satellite imagery. Using satellite images between 2001 and 2009, we obtained 16,548 matchup samples and found the correlation to be positive in the TC\u2019s inner core region (in the annulus field 64 km from the TC center) and negative in its outer region (in the annulus field 100\u2013250 km from the TC center). Then, we performed a stepwise regression to select the dominant variables and derived the associated coefficients for the objective models. Independent validation against best track archives shows the median estimation error to be between 27 and 65 km, which are not significantly different to other satellite series data. Finally, we applied the models to 721 TCs and made 13,726 measurements of TC size. The difference of mean TC size derived from our models, and also that from the US Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) best track archives is 19 km. The developed database is valuable in the research fields of TC structure, climatology, and the initialization of forecasting models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070728","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,14]],"date-time":"2017-07-14T10:45:02Z","timestamp":1500029102000},"page":"728","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Estimating Tropical Cyclone Size in the Northwestern Pacific from Geostationary Satellite Infrared Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Xiaoqin","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Typhoon Institute, China Meteorological Administration, No. 166, Puxi Rd., Shanghai 200030, China"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Typhoon Institute, China Meteorological Administration, No. 166, Puxi Rd., Shanghai 200030, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaoming","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Ocean University, No. 999, Huchenghuan Rd., Shanghai 201306, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7038-5119","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaofeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GST at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)\/NESDIS, College Park, MD 20740-3818, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Chen, L.S., and Ding, Y.H. (1979). Tropical Cyclones in Northwestern Pacific, China Science Press. [1st ed.]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"898","article-title":"Location of tropical cyclone center with intelligent image processing technique, ICMLC 2005, Lect","volume":"3930","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Notes Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1408","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1984)112<1408:ACOLAS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Comparison of large and small tropical cyclones","volume":"112","author":"Merrill","year":"1984","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2992","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1999)127<2992:SOTCAI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Size of Tropical cyclone as inferred from ERS-1 and ERS-2 Data","volume":"127","author":"Liu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-13-00096.1","article-title":"An objective satellite-based tropical cyclone size climatology","volume":"27","author":"Knaff","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-15-0267.1","article-title":"Using Routinely Available Information to Estimate Tropical Cyclone Wind Structure","volume":"144","author":"Knaff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"14","article-title":"Rain effects on the hurricane observations over the ocean by C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"120","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1980)108<1212:AAMOTW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An Analytic Model of the Wind and Pressure Profiles in Hurricanes","volume":"108","author":"Holland","year":"1980","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Chen, L.S., Dong, K.Q., Jin, H.L., Bao, D.L., and Qin, C.H. (1994). A global View of Tropical Cyclones, China Meteorological Press. [1st ed.]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2000)057<0836:SOTIAS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Studies on the initialization and simulation of a mature hurricane using a variational bogus data assimilation scheme","volume":"57","author":"Zou","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.1175\/2011JAMC2673.1","article-title":"An automated, objective, multi-satellite platform tropical cyclone surface wind analysis","volume":"50","author":"Knaff","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-011-0008-9","article-title":"Statistics for size and radial wind profile of tropical cyclones in the western North Pacific","volume":"25","author":"Lu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Meteorol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9501","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-15-0628.1","article-title":"Implications of the observed relationship between tropical cyclone size and intensity over the western North Pacific","volume":"28","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2002)130<1989:VOTOWP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Variability of the outer wind profiles of western North Pacific typhoons: Classifications and techniques for analysis and forecasting","volume":"130","author":"Cocks","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3978","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2014.916447","article-title":"Typhoon eye extraction with an automatic SAR image segmentation method","volume":"35","author":"Jin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.03.020","article-title":"Extracting hurricane eye morphology from spaceborne SAR images using morphological analysis","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2472282","article-title":"Comparison of typhoon centers from SAR and IR images and those from best track datasets","volume":"54","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Jin, S., Wang, S., Li, X., Jiao, L., Zhang, J.A., and Shen, D. (2017). Center location of tropical cyclones without eyes in SAR images based on salient region detection and pattern matching. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"80","article-title":"Storm patterns over the ocean with wide swath SAR","volume":"21","author":"Friedman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Johns Hopkins Univ. APL Tech. Dig."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Zhang, J.A., Yang, X., Pichel, W.G., DeMaria, M., Long, D., and Li, Z. (2013). Tropical cyclone morphology from spaceborne synthetic aperture radar. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-11-00211.1"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"The First Sentinel-1 SAR Image of a Typhoon","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-013-4633-2","article-title":"Estimation of tropical cyclone parameters and wind fields from SAR images","volume":"56","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2631663","article-title":"A Hurricane morphology and surface wind vector estimation model for C-band cross-polarization SAR","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.802474","article-title":"Observation of Hurricane-Generated Ocean Swell Refraction at the Gulf Stream North Wall with the RADARSAT-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3555","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2004)017<3555:AYCONA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A 15-year climatology of North Atlantic tropical cyclones. Part I: Size parameters","volume":"17","author":"Kimball","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3207","DOI":"10.1175\/2010MWR3023.1","article-title":"Initial maintenance of tropical cyclone size in the western North Pacific","volume":"138","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-10-05062.1","article-title":"Size and strength of tropical cyclones as inferred from QuikSCAT data","volume":"140","author":"Chan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3985","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-12-00204.1","article-title":"Angular momentum transports and synoptic flow patterns associated with tropical cyclone size change","volume":"141","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj1965.50.4_332","article-title":"Very large and very small typhoon of the Western North Pacific Ocean","volume":"50","author":"Brand","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3190","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1997)125<3190:MOTCWD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Models of tropical cyclone wind distribution and beta-effect propagation for application to tropical cyclone track forecasting","volume":"125","author":"Carr","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2429.1","article-title":"Improvement of Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit Tropical Cyclone Intensity and Size Estimation Algorithms","volume":"45","author":"Demuth","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF985.1","article-title":"Estimating hurricane wind structure in the absence of aircraft reconnaissance","volume":"22","author":"Kossin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1175\/2008WAF2007077.1","article-title":"A Technique to Determine the Radius of Maximum Wind of a Tropical Cyclone","volume":"23","author":"Lajoie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1975)103<0420:TCIAAF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Tropical Cyclone Intensity Analysis and Forecasting from Satellite Imagery","volume":"103","author":"Dvorak","year":"1975","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Dvorak, V.F. (1984). Tropical Cyclone Intensity Analysis Using Satellite Data."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF1026.1","article-title":"Statistical Tropical Cyclone Wind Radii Prediction Using Climatology and Persistence","volume":"22","author":"Knaff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1175\/2009BAMS2755.1","article-title":"The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data","volume":"91","author":"Knapp","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013505","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2712816","article-title":"New global tropical cyclone data from ISCCP B1 geostationary satellite observations","volume":"1","author":"Knapp","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1175\/2011BAMS3039.1","article-title":"Globally Gridded Satellite Observations for Climate Studies","volume":"92","author":"Knapp","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1522.1","article-title":"An objective algorithm for detecting and tracking tropical cloud clusters: Implications for tropical cyclogenesis prediction","volume":"28","author":"Hennon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocea. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JCLI3716.1","article-title":"Detecting the ITCZ in instantaneous satellite data using spatial\u2013temporal statistical modeling: ITCZ climatology in the east Pacific","volume":"24","author":"Bain","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2580","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1989)046<2580:OAOTCI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Observational analysis of tropical cyclogenesis in the western North Pacific. Part I: Structural evolution of cloud clusters","volume":"46","author":"Lee","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1982)039<0378:TROBHT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The response of balanced hurricanes to local sources of heat and momentum","volume":"39","author":"Shapiro","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1973)030<1544:THICRI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The hurricane\u2019s inner core region. I. Symmetric and asymmetric structure","volume":"30","author":"Shea","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1988)116<1032:TSARBA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Typhoon structure as revealed by aircraft reconnaissance. Part I: Data analysis and climatology","volume":"116","author":"Weatherford","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1988)116<1044:TSARBA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Typhoon structure as revealed by aircraft reconnaissance. Part II: Structural variability","volume":"116","author":"Weatherford","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2002)130<0127:ICSOAT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Inner core strength of Atlantic tropical cyclones","volume":"130","author":"Croxford","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"McAdie, C.J. (2004, January 2\u20137). Development of a wind-radii CLIPER model. Proceedings of the 26th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, Miami, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1972)100<0336:AOSMRT>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Application of Stepwise Multiple Regression Techniques to Inversion of Nimbus \u201cIRIS\u201d Observations","volume":"100","author":"Ohring","year":"1972","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1970)098<0582:ARMFOR>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"A Regression Method for Obtaining Real-Time Temperature and Geopotential Height Profiles From Satellite Spectrometer Measurements and Its Application to NIMBUS 3 \u2018SIRS\u2019 Observations","volume":"98","author":"Smith","year":"1970","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Knaff, J.A., and Harper, B.A. (2010, January 15\u201320). Tropical cyclone surface wind structure and wind-pressure relationships. Proceedings of the WMO Seventh International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones, La Reunion, France."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-14-00149.1","article-title":"After a decade are Atlantic tropical cyclone gale force wind radii forecasts now skillful?","volume":"30","author":"Knaff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR3126.1","article-title":"A real-time hurricane surface wind forecasting model: Formulation and verification","volume":"134","author":"Xie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Chen, D.Q., Chen, X.Z., and Feng, J.X. (1990). Climatological Atlas for Northwestern Pacific Tropical Cyclones, China Climatological Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-11-00175.1","article-title":"Usability of best track data in climate statistics in the western north pacific","volume":"140","author":"Barcikowska","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5887","DOI":"10.1175\/2011JCLI3996.1","article-title":"Reliability analysis of climate change of tropical cyclone activity over the western north pacific","volume":"24","author":"Ren","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clim."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/7\/728\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:42:47Z","timestamp":1760208167000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/7\/728"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,14]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9070728"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9070728","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,14]]}}}