{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T20:31:32Z","timestamp":1781901092861,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,30]],"date-time":"2017-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1501372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chinese Natural Science Foundation Project","award":["41501366"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41501366"]}]},{"name":"Chinese Natural Science Foundation Project","award":["41571359"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41571359"]}]},{"name":"Chinese Natural Science Foundation Project","award":["41571357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41571357"]}]},{"name":"Chinese Natural Science Foundation Project","award":["41571329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41571329"]}]},{"name":"Chinese Natural Science Foundation Project","award":["41671366"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41671366"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Basic Research Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2013CB733401"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2013CB733401"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The inversion of land surface component temperatures is an essential source of information for mapping heat fluxes and the angular normalization of thermal infrared (TIR) observations. Leaf and soil temperatures can be retrieved using multiple-view-angle TIR observations. In a satellite-scale pixel, the clumping effect of vegetation is usually present, but it is not completely considered during the inversion process. Therefore, we introduced a simple inversion procedure that uses gap frequency with a clumping index (GCI) for leaf and soil temperatures over both crop and forest canopies. Simulated datasets corresponding to turbid vegetation, regularly planted crops and randomly distributed forest were generated using a radiosity model and were used to test the proposed inversion algorithm. The results indicated that the GCI algorithm performed well for both crop and forest canopies, with root mean squared errors of less than 1.0 \u00b0C against simulated values. The proposed inversion algorithm was also validated using measured datasets over orchard, maize and wheat canopies. Similar results were achieved, demonstrating that using the clumping index can improve inversion results. In all evaluations, we recommend using the GCI algorithm as a foundation for future satellite-based applications due to its straightforward form and robust performance for both crop and forest canopies using the vegetation clumping index.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080780","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,1]],"date-time":"2017-08-01T03:30:06Z","timestamp":1501558206000},"page":"780","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["A Robust Inversion Algorithm for Surface Leaf and Soil Temperatures Using the Vegetation Clumping Index"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2433-9901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zunjian","family":"Bian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10010, China"},{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Biao","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10010, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10010, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongming","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10010, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisheng","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Key Laboratory of Karst Environment School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400712, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenjie","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of RS and GIS, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10010, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3713-9511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qinhuo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10010, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(00)00080-9","article-title":"Remote sensing for irrigated agriculture: Examples from research and possible applications","volume":"46","author":"Bastiaanssen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.04.007","article-title":"Remote sensing applications for precision agriculture: A learning community approach","volume":"88","author":"Seelan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1109\/36.508406","article-title":"A generalized split-window algorithm for retrieving land-surface temperature from space","volume":"34","author":"Wan","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1109\/36.602541","article-title":"A physics-based algorithm for retrieving land-surface emissivity and temperature from eos\/modis data","volume":"35","author":"Wan","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1109\/36.700995","article-title":"A temperature and emissivity separation algorithm for advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (aster) images","volume":"36","author":"Gillespie","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.12.008","article-title":"Satellite-derived land surface temperature: Current status and perspectives","volume":"131","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"D23","article-title":"Quantifying uncertainties in land surface temperature and emissivity retrievals from aster and modis thermal infrared data","volume":"117","author":"Hulley","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.11.014","article-title":"Evaluation of the viirs and modis lst products in an arid area of northwest China","volume":"142","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(80)90020-6","article-title":"Effects of vegetation canopy structure on remotely sensed canopy temperatures","volume":"10","author":"Kimes","year":"1980","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3721","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.903401","article-title":"Modeling directional brightness temperature of the winter wheat canopy at the ear stage","volume":"45","author":"Du","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.834196","article-title":"Modeling directional brightness temperature over a maize canopy in row structure","volume":"42","author":"Yu","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02265-Y","article-title":"Source approach for estimating soil and vegetation energy fluxes in observations of directional radiometric surface temperature","volume":"77","author":"Norman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1029\/97WR00704","article-title":"A two-source approach for estimating turbulent fluxes using multiple angle thermal infrared observations","volume":"33","author":"Kustas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2000.925847x","article-title":"A two-source energy balance approach using directional radiometric temperature observations for sparse canopy covered surfaces","volume":"92","author":"Kustas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2016.01.005","article-title":"Application of remote sensing-based two-source energy balance model for mapping field surface fluxes with composite and component surface temperatures","volume":"230","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-13-1249-2009","article-title":"Retrieval of canopy component temperatures through bayesian inversion of directional thermal measurements","volume":"13","author":"Timmermans","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11997","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900671","article-title":"Estimation of soil and vegetation temperatures with multiangular thermal infrared observations: Imgrass, heife, and sgp 1997 experiments","volume":"106","author":"Menenti","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4739","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000101576","article-title":"A practical algorithm to infer soil and foliage component temperatures from bi-angular atsr-2 data","volume":"24","author":"Jia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02879653","article-title":"On the separate retrieval of soil and vegetation temperatures from atsr data","volume":"44","author":"Li","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(83)90026-3","article-title":"Remote sensing of row crop structure and component temperatures using directional radiometric temperatures and inversion techniques","volume":"13","author":"Kimes","year":"1983","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2587","DOI":"10.1080\/014311697217495","article-title":"Analytical parameterization of canopy directional emissivity and directional radiance in the thermal infrared. Application on the retrieval of soil and foliage temperatures using two directional measurements","volume":"18","author":"Francois","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2009.0393","article-title":"Radiometer footprint model to estimate sunlit and shaded components for row crops","volume":"102","author":"Colaizzi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161003698252","article-title":"Thermal infrared inverse model for component temperatures of mixed pixels","volume":"32","author":"Shi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-1571(71)90092-6","article-title":"A theoretical analysis of the frequency of gaps in plant stands","volume":"8","author":"Nilson","year":"1971","journal-title":"Agric. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM465.1","article-title":"Effects of vegetation clumping on two-source model estimates of surface energy fluxes from an agricultural landscape during smacex","volume":"6","author":"Anderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.01.013","article-title":"Rapid: A radiosity applicable to porous individual objects for directional reflectance over complex vegetated scenes","volume":"132","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000116426","article-title":"Definition of component effective emissivity for heterogeneous and non-isothermal surfaces and its approximate calculation","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1360\/02yd9066","article-title":"Matrix expression of thermal radiative characteristics for an open complex","volume":"45","author":"Xu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1010.2012.00462","article-title":"Genetic algorithm based surface component temperatures retrieval by integrating modis tir data from terra and aqua satellites","volume":"31","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infrared Millim. Waves"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4660","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2547961","article-title":"Retrieval of leaf, sunlit soil, and shaded soil component temperatures using airborne thermal infrared multiangle observations","volume":"54","author":"Bian","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1360\/03yd0130","article-title":"Integrative inversion of land surface component temperature","volume":"48","author":"Fan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(92)90040-B","article-title":"Foliage area and architecture of plant canopies from sunfleck size distributions","volume":"60","author":"Chen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A346","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.23.00A346","article-title":"Performance evaluation of four directional emissivity analytical models with thermal sail model and airborne images","volume":"23","author":"Ren","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.895844","article-title":"Unified optical-thermal four-stream radiative transfer theory for homogeneous vegetation canopies","volume":"45","author":"Verhoef","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.12.008","article-title":"Global clumping index map derived from the modis brdf product","volume":"119","author":"He","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Fan, W., Liu, Y., Zhu, G., Peng, J., and Xu, X. (2017). Estimating savanna clumping index using hemispherical photographs integrated with high resolution remote sensing images. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010052"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-012-4380-9","article-title":"A unified canopy bidirectional reflectance (BRDF) model for row ceops","volume":"55","author":"Yan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-12-00154.1","article-title":"Heihe watershed allied telemetry experimental research (hiwater): Scientific objectives and experimental design","volume":"94","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"797","article-title":"Image processing method of airborne widas sensor in water campaign","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Technol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berk, A., Anderson, G.P., Bernstein, L.S., Acharya, P.K., Dothe, H., Matthew, M.W., Adler-Golden, S.M., Chetwynd, J.H., Richtsmeier, S.C., and Pukall, B. (1999). Modtran 4 Radiative Transfer Modeling for Atmospheric Correction, SPIE\u2014The International Society for Optical Engineering.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.366388"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borel, C.C. (1998, January 6\u201310). Surface emissivity and temperature retrieval for a hyperspectral sensor. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium 1998, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.1998.702966"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2014.2339360","article-title":"Estimating and validating soil evaporation and crop transpiration during the hiwater-musoexe","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2014.2333874","article-title":"Modeling directional brightness temperature over mixed scenes of continuous crop and road: A case study of the heihe river basin","volume":"12","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.831886","article-title":"Directional effects in a daily avhrr land surface temperature dataset over africa","volume":"42","author":"Pinheiro","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.07.024","article-title":"The global monitoring for environment and security (gmes) sentinel-3 mission","volume":"120","author":"Donlon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/8\/780\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:44:32Z","timestamp":1760208272000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/8\/780"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,30]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9080780"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9080780","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,30]]}}}