{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T02:32:31Z","timestamp":1771036351428,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,31]],"date-time":"2017-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1501459200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001711","name":"Swiss National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["40FA40_160405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["40FA40_160405"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001711","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study spatially assesses, quantifies, and visualizes the agricultural expansion and land use intensification in the northwestern foothills of Mount Kenya over the last 30 years: processes triggered by population growth, and, more recently, by large-scale commercial investments. We made use of Google Earth Engine to access the USGS Landsat data archive and to generate cloud-free seasonal composites. These enabled us to accurately differentiate between rainfed and irrigated cropland, which was important for assessing agricultural intensification. We developed three land cover and land use classifications using the random forest classifier, and assessed land cover and land use change by creating cross-tabulation matrices for the intervals from 1987 to 2002, 2002 to 2016, and 1987 to 2016 and calculating the net change. We then applied a landscape mosaic approach to each classification to identify landscape types categorized by land use intensity. We discuss the impacts of landscape changes on natural habitats, biodiversity, and water. Kappa accuracies for the three classifications lay between 78.3% and 82.1%. Our study confirms that rainfed and irrigated cropland expanded at the expense of natural habitats, including protected areas. Agricultural expansion took place mainly in the 1980s and 1990s, whereas agricultural intensification largely happened after 2000. Since then, not only large-scale producers, but also many smallholders have begun to practice irrigated farming. The spatial pattern of agricultural expansion and intensification in the study area is defined by water availability. Agricultural intensification and the expansion of horticulture agribusinesses increase pressure on water. Furthermore, the observed changes have heightened pressure on pasture and idle land due to the decrease in natural and agropastoral landscapes. Conflicts between pastoralists, smallholder farmers, large-scale ranches, and wildlife might further increase, particularly during the dry seasons and in years of extreme drought.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080784","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,1]],"date-time":"2017-08-01T03:30:06Z","timestamp":1501558206000},"page":"784","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Agricultural Expansion and Intensification in the Foothills of Mount Kenya: A Landscape Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9579-5680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Eckert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 10, 3012 Bern, Switzerland"}]},{"given":"Boniface","family":"Kiteme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Training and Integrated Research in ASAL Development, 10400 Nanyuki, Kenya"}]},{"given":"Evanson","family":"Njuguna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Training and Integrated Research in ASAL Development, 10400 Nanyuki, Kenya"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3253-5128","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julie","family":"Zaehringer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 10, 3012 Bern, Switzerland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-3780(01)00007-3","article-title":"The causes of land-use and land-cover change: Moving beyond the myths","volume":"11","author":"Lambin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1890\/1540-9295(2004)002[0249:LCBHNA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Land-use choices: Balancing human needs and ecosystem function","volume":"2","author":"DeFries","year":"2004","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3465","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1100480108","article-title":"Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity","volume":"108","author":"Lambin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mustard, J.F., Defries, R.S., Fisher, T., and Moran, E. (2012). Land-use and land-cover change pathways and impacts. Land Change Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-2562-4_24"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1244693","article-title":"High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change","volume":"342","author":"Hansen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1111772","article-title":"Global Consequences of Land Use","volume":"309","author":"Foley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bongers, F., and Tennigkeit, T. (2010). Degraded Forests in Eastern Africa: Management and Restoration, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781849776400"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"60","article-title":"Anthropogenic pressure in East Africa\u2014Monitoring 20 years of land cover changes by means of medium resolution satellite data","volume":"28","author":"Brink","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Co-existence of wildlife and pastoralism on extensive rangelands: Competition or compatibility?","volume":"2","author":"Kerven","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pastor. Res. Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"310","article-title":"The linkages between land use change, land degradation and biodiversity across East Africa","volume":"3","author":"Maitima","year":"2009","journal-title":"Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Cotula, L., International Institute for Environment and Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and International Fund for Agricultural Development (2009). Land Grab or Development Opportunity? Agricultural Investment and International Land Deals in Africa, IFAD."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2007.06.022","article-title":"Impacts of environmental change on water resources in the Mt. Kenya region","volume":"343","author":"Notter","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2017, July 03). Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Government of Kenya, National Horticultural Policy. Available online: http:\/\/extwprlegs1.fao.org\/docs\/pdf\/ken147935.pdf."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Wiesmann, U. (1998). Sustainable Regional Development in Rural Africa: Conceptual Framework and Case Studies from Kenya, Geographica Bernensia."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2014.909025","article-title":"Conflict, Development and Security at the Agro\u2013Pastoral\u2013Wildlife Nexus: A Case of Laikipia County, Kenya","volume":"50","author":"Bond","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dev. Stud."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.3390\/environments2040521","article-title":"Understanding the Impact of Intensive Horticulture Land-Use Practices on Surface Water Quality in Central Kenya","volume":"2","author":"Muriithi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environments"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.3390\/su6010336","article-title":"Export-Oriented Horticultural Production in Laikipia, Kenya: Assessing the Implications for Rural Livelihoods","volume":"6","author":"Ulrich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrurstud.2012.02.003","article-title":"Small-scale farming in semi-arid areas: Livelihood dynamics between 1997 and 2010 in Laikipia, Kenya","volume":"28","author":"Ulrich","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Rural Stud."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2015.08.004","article-title":"Tracing divergent livelihood pathways in the drylands: A perspective on two spatially proximate locations in Laikipia County, Kenya","volume":"124","author":"Roden","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2014.10.012","article-title":"Crop diversification as a smallholder livelihood strategy within semi-arid agricultural systems near Mount Kenya","volume":"42","author":"McCord","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3302","DOI":"10.3390\/su4123302","article-title":"Local Perceptions and Responses to Climate Change and Variability: The Case of Laikipia District, Kenya","volume":"4","author":"Ogalleh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.2307\/3673688","article-title":"Socioeconomic Viewpoints on Highland-Lowland Systems: A Case Study on the Northwest Side of Mount Kenya","volume":"12","author":"Wiesmann","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Jeanneret, F., Wastl-Walter, D., Wiesmann, U., and Schwyn, M. (2003). Kleinb\u00e4uerliche Besiedlung und die Auspr\u00e4gung von Haushaltsstrategien am Mount Kenya. Welt der Alpe\u2014Gebirge der Welt, Haupt Verlag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5020949","article-title":"Advances in Remote Sensing of Agriculture: Context Description, Existing Operational Monitoring Systems and Major Information Needs","volume":"5","author":"Atzberger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2274","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2092274","article-title":"Remote sensing of irrigated agriculture: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"2","author":"Ozdogan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2890","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4102890","article-title":"An automated cropland classification algorithm (ACCA) for Tajikistan by combining Landsat, MODIS, and secondary data","volume":"4","author":"Thenkabail","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Estel, S., Kuemmerle, T., Levers, C., Baumann, M., and Hostert, P. (2016). Mapping cropland-use intensity across Europe using MODIS NDVI time series. Environ. Res. Lett., 11.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/11\/2\/024015"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2016.1168489","article-title":"Mapping rice-fallow cropland areas for short-season grain legumes intensification in South Asia using MODIS 250 m time-series data","volume":"9","author":"Gumma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Spectral matching techniques (SMTs) and automated cropland classification algorithms (ACCAs) for mapping croplands of Australia using MODIS 250-m time-series (2000\u20132015) data","volume":"10","author":"Teluguntla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.10.014","article-title":"Mining dense Landsat time series for separating cropland and pasture in a heterogeneous Brazilian savanna landscape","volume":"156","author":"Rufin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, N., Tao, B., Ren, W., Feng, M., Sun, R., He, L., Zhuang, W., and Yu, Q. (2016). Mapping Irrigated and Rainfed Wheat Areas Using Multi-Temporal Satellite Data. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8030207"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knauer, K., Gessner, U., Fensholt, R., Forkuor, G., and Kuenzer, C. (2017). Monitoring agricultural expansion in Burkina Faso over 14 years with 30 m resolution time series: the role of population growth and implications for the environment. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9020132"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14637","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0606377103","article-title":"Cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the southern Brazilian Amazon","volume":"103","author":"Morton","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.08.004","article-title":"Mapping rice paddy extent and intensification in the Vietnamese Mekong River Delta with dense time stacks of Landsat data","volume":"169","author":"Kontgis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2006.10.051","article-title":"Agricultural intensification and loss of matrix habitat over 23 years in the West Wimmera, south-eastern Australia","volume":"135","author":"Maron","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3972","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4123972","article-title":"Reconstructing the spatio-temporal development of irrigation systems in Uzbekistan using Landsat time series","volume":"4","author":"Edlinger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20666","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0704119104","article-title":"The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability","volume":"104","author":"Turner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"Land systems research in Denmark: Background and perspectives","volume":"106","author":"Reenberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geogr. Tidsskr. Dan. J. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.3917\/eg.371.0057","article-title":"Paysages et fronts pionniers amazoniens sous le regard des satellites: L\u2019exemple du Mato Grosso","volume":"37","author":"Dubreuil","year":"2008","journal-title":"L\u2019Espace G\u00e9ographique"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1007\/s10708-012-9469-3","article-title":"Mapping and spatial analysis of the soybean agricultural frontier in Mato Grosso, Brazil, using remote sensing data","volume":"78","author":"Arvor","year":"2013","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutman, G., Janetos, A.C., Justice, C.O., Moran, E.F., Mustard, J.F., Rindfuss, R.R., Skole, D., Turner, B.L., and Cochrane, M.A. (2004). Land Change Science: Observing, Monitoring and Understanding Trajectories of Change on the Earth\u2019s Surface, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-2562-4"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2013.06.002","article-title":"Challenges and opportunities in mapping land use intensity globally","volume":"5","author":"Kuemmerle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Berger, P. (1989). Rainfall and Agroclimatology of the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya, Geographica Bernensia."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1659\/0276-4741(2005)025[0163:AAMSTM]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Assessing and Managing Scarce Tropical Mountain Water Resources: The Case of Mount Kenya and the Semiarid Upper Ewaso Ng\u2019iro Basin","volume":"25","author":"Liniger","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1659\/0276-4741(2005)025[0155:RWSIAH]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"River water shortage in a highland-lowland system: A case study of the impacts of water abstraction in the Mount Kenya region","volume":"25","author":"Aeschbacher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Kohler, T. (1987). Land Use in Transition: Aspects and Problems of Small Scale Farming in a New Environment: The Example of Laikipia District, Kenya, Geographica Bernensia."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2017, June 06). KNBS\u2014Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Available online: https:\/\/www.knbs.or.ke\/."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Lanari, N., Liniger, H., and Kiteme, B.P. (2016). Commercial Horticulture in Kenya: Adapting to Water Scarcity, University of Bern."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/4\/045024","article-title":"Agricultural land change in the Carpathian ecoregion after the breakdown of socialism and expansion of the European Union","volume":"8","author":"Griffiths","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.04.022","article-title":"Forest disturbances, forest recovery, and changes in forest types across the Carpathian ecoregion from 1985 to 2010 based on Landsat image composites","volume":"151","author":"Griffiths","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"18","article-title":"Dimensions of Global Change in African Mountains: The Example of Mount Kenya","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Rechkemmer","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change: Mountain Regions: Laboratories for Adaptation"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Jakimow, B., Oldenburg, C., Rabe, A., Waske, B., van der Linden, S., and Hostert, P. (2017, July 31). Manual for Application: ImageRF (1.1). Available online: http:\/\/dev.geo.hu-berlin.de\/enmap-box\/documentation\/applications\/imageRF\/help\/imageRF_Manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friedman, J., Hastie, T., and Tibshirani, R. (2001). The Elements of Statistical Learning, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-21606-5"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.08.011","article-title":"Random forests for land cover classification","volume":"27","author":"Gislason","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.01.011","article-title":"Random forest in remote sensing: A review of applications and future directions","volume":"114","author":"Belgiu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10017","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70810017","article-title":"Mapping tree canopy cover and aboveground biomass in Sudano-Sahelian woodlands using Landsat 8 and random forest","volume":"7","author":"Karlson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Chen, W., Cheng, X., and Wang, L. (2016). A comparison of machine learning algorithms for mapping of complex surface-mined and agricultural landscapes using ZiYuan-3 stereo satellite imagery. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8060514"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.11.002","article-title":"An assessment of the effectiveness of a random forest classifier for land-cover classification","volume":"67","author":"Ghimire","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Congalton, R.G., and Green, K. (2008). Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data: Principles and Practices, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420055139"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2004.05.010","article-title":"Useful techniques of validation for spatially explicit land-change models","volume":"179","author":"Pontius","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2012.02.010","article-title":"Intensity analysis to unify measurements of size and stationarity of land changes by interval, category, and transition","volume":"106","author":"Aldwaik","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s10745-009-9238-1","article-title":"Finding homogeneity in heterogeneity\u2014A new approach to quantifying landscape mosaics developed for the Lao PDR","volume":"37","author":"Messerli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2011.07.011","article-title":"A landscape mosaics approach for characterizing swidden systems from a REDD+ perspective","volume":"32","author":"Hett","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2015.12.009","article-title":"Beyond deforestation monitoring in conservation hotspots: Analysing landscape mosaic dynamics in north-eastern Madagascar","volume":"68","author":"Zaehringer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"231","article-title":"Elephants, woodlands and biodiversity in southern Africa","volume":"93","author":"Cumming","year":"1997","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2013.10.014","article-title":"Agroforestry solutions to address food security and climate change challenges in Africa","volume":"6","author":"Mbow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2011.635199","article-title":"Global Value Chains and Market Formation Process in Emerging Export Activity: Evidence from Ethiopian Flower Industry","volume":"48","author":"Gebreeyesus","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dev. Stud."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Xia, Y., Deng, X., Zhou, P., Shima, K., and da Silva, J.A.T. The World Floriculture Industry: Dynamics of production and markets. Floriculture, Ornamental and Plant Biotechnology: Advances and Topical Issues, Available online: http:\/\/www.globalsciencebooks.info\/Books\/images\/FOPBVolume5Outline.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandra, V. (2006). Floriculture in Kenya. Technology, Adaptation, and Exports\u2014How Some Developing Countries Got it Right, The World Bank.","DOI":"10.1596\/978-0-8213-6507-6"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2010.02307.x","article-title":"Challenges in using land use and land cover data for global change studies","volume":"17","author":"Verburg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.05.017","article-title":"Wavelet analysis of MODIS time series to detect expansion and intensification of row-crop agriculture in Brazil","volume":"112","author":"Galford","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1002\/geo2.4","article-title":"A contemporary decennial examination of changing agricultural field sizes using Landsat time series data","volume":"2","author":"White","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geo Geogr. Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1770.2007.00323.x","article-title":"Macroinvertebrate assemblages along a land-use gradient in the upper River Njoro watershed of Lake Nakuru drainage basin, Kenya","volume":"12","author":"Kibichii","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lakes Reserv. Res. Manag."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2989\/AJAS.2007.32.1.11.148","article-title":"Human impact on lake ecosystems: The case of Lake Naivasha, Kenya","volume":"32","author":"Oswe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Afr. J. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Nyakundi, W.O., Magoma, G., Ochora, J., and Nyende, A.B. (2010, January 17\u201319). Survey of pesticide use and application patterns among farmers: A case study from selected horticultural farms in Rift Valley and Central provinces, Kenya. Proceedings of the 2010 JKUAT Scientific Technological and Industrialization Conference, Nairobi, Kenya."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Meersohn Meinecke, S.M., Pandey, A., Thant, A.M., Madalinska, A., S\u00f8rensen, C., and Wilson, M. (2017, July 31). Crop Production and Livelihood Strategies in a Resettlement Village in Kenya. Available online: http:\/\/www.tropentag.de\/2012\/abstracts\/full\/371.pdf."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Zaehringer, J.G., Wambugu, G., Kiteme, B.P., and Eckert, S. (2007). Large-scale agricultural investments on the western slopes of Mount Kenya: Perceived impacts on small-scale farmers\u2019 land use and the environment. Ecol. Soc., submitted."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/8\/784\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:44:37Z","timestamp":1760208277000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/8\/784"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,31]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9080784"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9080784","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,31]]}}}