{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T17:15:51Z","timestamp":1774026951666,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,2]],"date-time":"2017-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1504310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX13AH39G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX13AH39G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX16AM28G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX16AM28G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Satellite orographic precipitation estimates exhibit large errors with space-time structure tied to landform. Observations in the Southern Appalachian Mountains (SAM) suggest that low-level clouds and fog (LLCF) amplify mid-day rainfall via seeder-feeder interactions (SFI) at both high and low elevations. Here, a rainfall microphysics model constrained by fog observations was used first to reveal that fast SFI (2\u20135 min time-scales) modify the rain drop size distributions by increasing coalescence efficiency among small drops (&lt;0.7 mm diameter), whereas competition between coalescence and filament-only breakup dominates for larger drops (3\u20135 mm diameter). The net result is a large increase in the number concentrations of intermediate size raindrops in the 0.7\u20133 mm range and up to a ten-fold increase in rainfall intensity. Next, a 10-year climatology of satellite observations was developed to map LLCF. Combined estimates from CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) and CloudSat products reveal persistent shallower cloud base heights at high elevations enveloping the terrain. The regional cloud top height climatology derived from the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) shows high-frequency daytime LLCF over mountain ridges in the warm season shifting to river valleys at nighttime. In fall and winter, LLCF patterns define a cloud-shadow region east of the continental divide, consistent with downwind rain-shadow effects. Optical and microphysical properties from collocated MODIS and ground ceilometers indicate small values of vertically integrated cloud water path (CWP &lt; 100 g\/m2), optical thickness (COT &lt; 15), and particle effective radius (CER) &lt; 15 \u03bcm near cloud top whereas surface observed CER ~25 \u03bcm changes to ~150 \u03bcm and higher prior to the mid-day rainfall. The vertical stratification of LLCF microphysics and SFI at low levels pose a significant challenge to satellite-based remote sensing in complex topography.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9090920","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,4]],"date-time":"2017-09-04T11:11:52Z","timestamp":1504523512000},"page":"920","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Understanding How Low-Level Clouds and Fog Modify the Diurnal Cycle of Orographic Precipitation Using In Situ and Satellite Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8072-4310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yajuan","family":"Duan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4606-3106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Barros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barros, A.P. 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