{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T06:08:04Z","timestamp":1769580484037,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,28]],"date-time":"2017-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1509148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/L009811\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/L009811\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/N01555X"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/N01555X"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a survey tool with many applications in forestry and forest research. It can capture the 3D structure of vegetation and topography quickly and accurately over thousands of hectares of forest. However, very few studies have assessed how accurately LiDAR can measure surface topography under forest canopies, which may be important, for example, in relation to analysis of pre- and post-burn surface height maps used to quantify the combustion of organic soils. Here, we use ground survey equipment to assess digital terrain model (DTM) accuracy in a deciduous broadleaf forest, during both leaf-on and leaf-off conditions. Using the leaf-on LiDAR dataset we quantitatively assess vertical vegetation structure, and use this as a categorical explanatory variable for DTM accuracy. In the presence of leaf-on vegetation, DTM accuracy is severely reduced, with low-stature undergrowth vegetation (such as ferns) causing the greatest errors (RMSE &gt; 1 m). Errors are lower under leaf-off conditions (RMSE = 0.22 m), but still of a magnitude similar to that reported for mean depths of burn in fires involving organic soils. We highlight the need for adequate ground control schemes to accompany any forest-based airborne LiDAR survey which require highly accurate DTMs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9111101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,30]],"date-time":"2017-10-30T12:16:23Z","timestamp":1509365783000},"page":"1101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["Assessment of Errors Caused by Forest Vegetation Structure in Airborne LiDAR-Derived DTMs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Jake","family":"Simpson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"King\u2019s College London, Department of Geography, London WC2R 2LS, UK"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King\u2019s College London, Department of Geography, London WC2R 2LS, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6375-7949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Wooster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King\u2019s College London, Department of Geography, London WC2R 2LS, UK"},{"name":"NERC National Centre for Earth Observation (NCEO), King\u2019s College London, London WC2R 2LS, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12510","article-title":"Using discrete-return airborne laser scanning to quantify number of canopy strata across diverse forest types","volume":"7","author":"Wilkes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koch, B., Heyder, U., and Weinacker, H. (2006). Detection of individual tree crowns in airborne LIDAR data. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens., 72.","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.4.357"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Rahman, M.Z.A., and Gorte, B. (2017, October 26). Individual Tree Detection Based on Densities of High Points of High Resolution Airborne LIDAR. Available online: http:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/xxxviii\/4-c1\/sessions\/Session12\/6790_Rahman_Proc.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.008","article-title":"Small-footprint lidar estimation of sub-canopy elevation and tree height in a tropical rain forest landscape","volume":"91","author":"Clark","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2010.533201","article-title":"Analysis of the factors affecting LiDAR DTM accuracy in a steep shrub area","volume":"4","author":"Estornell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-008-6018-x","article-title":"Synchronous estimation of DTM and fractional vegetation cover in forested area from airborne LIDAR height and intensity data","volume":"51","author":"Bao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. E"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"85","article-title":"Factors affecting the quality of DTM generation in forested areas","volume":"36","author":"Yu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-022","article-title":"Accuracy of a high-resolution lidar terrain model under a conifer forest canopy","volume":"29","author":"Reutebuch","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.11.1265","article-title":"Influence of vegetation, slope, and lidar sampling angle on DEM accuracy","volume":"72","author":"Su","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1139\/x11-193","article-title":"Investigating the influence of LiDAR ground surface errors on the utility of derived forest inventories","volume":"42","author":"Tinkham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00114-1","article-title":"An evaluation of LIDAR- and IFSAR-derived digital elevation models in leaf-on conditions with USGS Level 1 and Level 2 DEMs","volume":"84","author":"Hodgson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasser, L., Day, R., Chasmer, L., and Taylor, A. (2013). Influence of Vegetation Structure on Lidar-derived Canopy Height and Fractional Cover in Forested Riparian Buffers During Leaf-Off and Leaf-On Conditions. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0054776"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8453","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70708453","article-title":"Effects of Pulse Density on Digital Terrain Models and Canopy Metrics Using Airborne Laser Scanning in a Tropical Rainforest","volume":"7","author":"Hansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3917","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-3917-2013","article-title":"Detection of large above-ground biomass variability in lowland forest ecosystems by airborne LiDAR","volume":"10","author":"Jubanski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"183","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of lidar-derived digital terrain model (dtm) with different slope and canopy cover in tropical forest region","volume":"II-2\/W2","author":"Salleh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Englhart, S., Franke, J., Keuck, V., and Siegert, F. (2012, January 22\u201327). Aboveground biomass estimation of tropical peat swamp forests using SAR and optical data. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2012.6352092"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13186","article-title":"Variable carbon losses from recurrent fires in drained tropical peatlands","volume":"22","author":"Konecny","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12030","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/46\/1\/012030","article-title":"Study on analysis from sources of error for Airborne LIDAR","volume":"46","author":"Ren","year":"2016","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-026","article-title":"Using airborne and ground-based ranging lidar to measure canopy structure in Australian forests","volume":"29","author":"Lovell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21213","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0906457106","article-title":"Derivation of burn scar depths and estimation of carbon emissions with LiDAR in Indonesian peatlands","volume":"106","author":"Ballhorn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Fowler, A., and Kadatskiy, V. (2011, January 1\u20135). Accuracy and error assessment of terrestrial, mobile and airborne LIDAR. Proceedings of the American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Conference (ASPRP 2011), Milwaukee, WI, SUA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2013.02.021","article-title":"Generating an optimal DTM from airborne laser scanning data for landslide mapping in a tropical forest environment","volume":"190","author":"Razak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.09.017","article-title":"Quantifying soil carbon loss and uncertainty from a peatland wildfire using multi-temporal LiDAR","volume":"170","author":"Reddy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y. (2004). Trends in atmospheric haze induced by peat fires in Sumatra Island, Indonesia and El Ni\u00f1o phenomenon from 1973 to 2003. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL018853"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160050110241","article-title":"Improving bird population models using airborne remote sensing","volume":"21","author":"Davenport","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2004.02.059","article-title":"Vegetation diversity and vertical structure as indicators of forest disturbance","volume":"195","author":"Onaindia","year":"2004","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.74.5.661","article-title":"Performance of GPS precise point positioning under conifer forest canopies","volume":"74","author":"Gjevestad","year":"2008","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simpson, J.E., Wooster, M.J., Smith, T.E.L., Trivedi, M., Vernimmen, R.R.E., Dedi, R., Shakti, M., and Dinata, Y. (2016). Tropical Peatland Burn Depth and Combustion Heterogeneity Assessed Using UAV Photogrammetry and Airborne LiDAR. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8121000"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.10.003","article-title":"Extracting LiDAR indices to characterise multilayered forest structure using mixture distribution functions","volume":"115","author":"Jaskierniak","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.81.8.625","article-title":"Understanding the Effects of ALS Pulse Density for Metric Retrieval across Diverse Forest Types","volume":"81","author":"Wilkes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simpson, J.E., Slade, E., Riutta, T., and Taylor, M.E. (2012). Factors Affecting Soil Fauna Feeding Activity in a Fragmented Lowland Temperate Deciduous Woodland. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0029616"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Lan, T., Peng, T., Wu, H., Li, C., and Ni, G. (2013, January 21\u201326). Effects of point density on DEM accuracy of airborne LiDAR. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium\u2014IGARSS, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2013.6721200"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2010.2099232","article-title":"Stability of Sample-Based Scanning-LiDAR-Derived Vegetation Metrics for Forest Monitoring","volume":"49","author":"Bater","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Liu, X., Zhang, Z., Peterson, J., and Chandra, S. (2007, January 10\u201313). The effect of LiDAR data density on DEM accuracy. Proceedings of the International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (MODSIM07), Christchurch, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Isenburg, M. (2017, October 26). LAStools\u2014Efficient Tools for LiDAR Processing. Available online: https:\/\/rapidlasso.com\/."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00008-8","article-title":"Processing of laser scanner data\u2014algorithms and applications","volume":"54","author":"Axelsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"90","article-title":"Review on determining number of Cluster in K-Means Clustering","volume":"1","author":"Kodinariya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci. Manag. Stud."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leitold, V., Keller, M., Morton, D.C., Cook, B.D., and Shimabukuro, Y.E. (2015). Airborne LIDAR-based estimates of tropical forest structure in complex terrain: Opportunities and trade-offs for REDD+. Carbon Balance Manag., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13021-015-0013-x"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/11\/1101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:48:46Z","timestamp":1760208526000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/11\/1101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,28]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9111101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9111101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,28]]}}}