{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T16:12:36Z","timestamp":1773763956882,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,24]],"date-time":"2017-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1511481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Continuous land-surface temperature (LST) observations from ground-based stations are an important reference dataset for validating remote-sensing LST products. However, a lack of evaluations of the representativeness of station observations limits the reliability of validation results. In this study, a new practical validation scheme is presented for validating remote-sensing LST products that includes a key step: assessing the spatial representativeness of ground-based LST measurements. Three indicators, namely, the dominant land-cover type (DLCT), relative bias (RB), and average structure scale (ASS), are established to quantify the representative levels of station observations based on the land-cover type (LCT) and LST reference maps with high spatial resolution. We validated MODIS LSTs using station observations from the Heihe River Basin (HRB) in China. The spatial representative evaluation steps show that the representativeness of observations greatly differs among stations and varies with different vegetation growth and other factors. Large differences in the validation results occur when using different representative level observations, which indicates a large potential for large error during the traditional T-based validation scheme. Comparisons show that the new validation scheme greatly improves the reliability of LST product validation through high-level representative observations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,24]],"date-time":"2017-11-24T06:39:25Z","timestamp":1511505565000},"page":"1210","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["New Scheme for Validating Remote-Sensing Land Surface Temperature Products with Station Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Wenping","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Remote Sensing Big Data Application, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, No. 2 Tiansheng Road, Beibei District, Chongqing 400715, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5464-1055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mingguo","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Remote Sensing Big Data Application, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, No. 2 Tiansheng Road, Beibei District, Chongqing 400715, China"}]},{"given":"Zhaoliang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICube, Uds, CNRS (UMR7357), 300 Bld Sebastien-Brant, CS10413, 67412 Illkirch, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9710-1868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junlei","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heihe Remote Sensing Experimental Research Station, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou 730000, China"}]},{"given":"Adan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heihe Remote Sensing Experimental Research Station, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou 730000, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, S.L. (2004). Quantitative Remote Sensing of Land Surface, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/047172372X"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"12","article-title":"The NOAA\/NASA pathfinder AVHRR 8-km land data set","volume":"63","author":"Smith","year":"1997","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1080\/014311600210164","article-title":"Improvements in the global biospheric record from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)","volume":"21","author":"Vermote","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, D., and Pinker, R.T. (2003). Estimation of land surface temperature from a Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES-8). J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002422"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.904834","article-title":"Land surface emissivity retrieval from different VNIR and TIR sensors","volume":"46","author":"Sobrino","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.905197","article-title":"Thermal land surface emissivity retrieved from SEVIRI\/Meteosat","volume":"46","author":"Trigo","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.12.008","article-title":"Satellite-derived land surface temperature: Current status and perspectives","volume":"131","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.05.007","article-title":"Ground measurements for the validation of land surface temperatures derived from AATSR and MODIS data","volume":"97","author":"Coll","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coll, C., Wan, Z., and Galve, J.M. (2009). Temperature-based and radiance-based validations of the v5 MODIS land surface temperature product. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 114.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD012038"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.027","article-title":"New refinements and validation of the collection-6 MODIS land-surface temperature\/emissivity product","volume":"140","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000116417","article-title":"Quality assessment and validation of the MODIS global land surface temperature","volume":"25","author":"Wan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.03.009","article-title":"Evaluation of ASTER and MODIS land surface temperature and emissivity products using long-term surface longwave radiation observations at SURFRAD sites","volume":"113","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.05.024","article-title":"Validating MODIS land surface temperature products using long-term nighttime ground measurements","volume":"112","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.06.026","article-title":"New refinements and validation of the MODIS land-surface temperature\/emissivity products","volume":"112","author":"Wan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Li, X., Ge, Y., Jin, R., Ma, M., Liu, Q., Wen, J., and Liu, S. (2016). Validation of regional-scale remote sensing products in China: From site to network. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8120980"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(99)01127-8","article-title":"Problems in upscaling of high resolution remote sensing data to coarse spatial resolution over land surface","volume":"26","author":"Gupta","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.06.012","article-title":"Scaling of land surface temperature using satellite data: A case examination on ASTER and MODIS products over a heterogeneous terrain area","volume":"105","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3043","DOI":"10.3390\/s7123043","article-title":"Reducing the discrepancy between aster and MODIS land surface temperature products","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.894564","article-title":"Absolute radiometric in-flight validation of mid infrared and thermal infrared data from ASTER and MODIS on the terra spacecraft using the Lake Tahoe, CA\/NV, USA, automated validation site","volume":"45","author":"Hook","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2014.2347953","article-title":"Scale mismatch between in situ and remote sensing observations of land surface temperature: Implications for the validation of remote sensing LST products","volume":"12","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3267","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2560878","article-title":"Evaluating spatial representativeness of station observations for remotely sensed leaf area index products","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8585","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50673","article-title":"Spatial representativeness of ground-based solar radiation measurements","volume":"118","author":"Hakuba","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.07.009","article-title":"The MODIS (Collection V005) BRDF\/albedo product: Assessment of spatial representativeness over forested landscapes","volume":"113","author":"Schaaf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.2747\/0272-3646.25.6.513","article-title":"Determining the spatial representativeness of air-temperature records using variogram-nugget time series","volume":"25","author":"Janis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3561","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-10-3561-2010","article-title":"Assessment of parameters describing representativeness of air quality in-situ measurement sites","volume":"10","author":"Henne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Z., Liu, S., Xu, Z., Chen, Y., and Zhu, M. (2012). Validation of remotely sensed evapotranspiration over the Hai River Basin, China. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD017037"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.05.028","article-title":"Land use to characterize spatial representativeness of air quality monitoring stations and its relevance for model validation","volume":"59","author":"Janssen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.1996.10467510","article-title":"Site representativeness of urban air monitoring stations","volume":"46","author":"Chan","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.10.002","article-title":"Evaluation of Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow albedo product (MCD43A) over tundra","volume":"117","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.007","article-title":"Characterizing spatial representativeness of flux tower eddy-covariance measurements across the Canadian Carbon Program Network using remote sensing and footprint analysis","volume":"124","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.02.019","article-title":"Intercomparison of MODIS albedo retrievals and in situ measurements across the global FLUXNET network","volume":"121","author":"Cescatti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.025","article-title":"Evaluation of MODIS albedo product (MCD43A) over grassland, agriculture and forest surface types during dormant and snow-covered periods","volume":"140","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-12-00154.1","article-title":"Heihe watershed allied telemetry experimental research (HiWATER): Scientific objectives and experimental design","volume":"94","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Journel, A.G., and Huijbregts, C.J. (1981). Mining Geostatistics, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00889887","article-title":"The origins of kriging","volume":"22","author":"Cressie","year":"1990","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.2307\/2937096","article-title":"Geostatistical tools for modeling and interpreting ecological spatial dependence","volume":"62","author":"Rossi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.2307\/1938482","article-title":"Geostatistics in ecology: Interpolating with known variance","volume":"68","author":"Robertson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1177\/030913339802200103","article-title":"Geostatistics and remote sensing","volume":"22","author":"Curran","year":"1998","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1111\/0033-0124.00250","article-title":"Spatial scale problems and geostatistical solutions: A review","volume":"52","author":"Atkinson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Prof. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1080\/10106040108542215","article-title":"Identifying the distance of vegetative edge effects using Landsat TM data and geostatistical methods","volume":"16","author":"Burcsu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.2307\/3545921","article-title":"On definition and quantification of heterogeneity","volume":"73","author":"Li","year":"1995","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"225","article-title":"Some achievements in scientific research during HEIFE","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"1994","journal-title":"Plateau Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Li, X., Li, Z., Ma, M., Wang, J., Xiao, Q., Liu, Q., Che, T., Chen, E., and Yan, G. (2009). Watershed allied telemetry experimental research. J. Geophys. Res., 114.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD011590"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2017, March 17). Heihe Watershed Allied Telemetry Experimental Research (HiWATER) Home. Available online: http:\/\/card.westgis.ac.cn\/hiwater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D11109","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JD005566","article-title":"Estimation of surface long wave radiation and broadband emissivity using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature\/emissivity products","volume":"110","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1109\/36.20292","article-title":"Modis: Advanced facility instrument for studies of the earth as a system","volume":"27","author":"Salomonson","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1109\/36.508406","article-title":"A generalized split-window algorithm for retrieving land-surface temperature from space","volume":"34","author":"Wan","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1109\/36.602541","article-title":"A physics-based algorithm for retrieving land-surface emissivity and temperature from EOS\/MODIS data","volume":"35","author":"Wan","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2003)042<1072:OROATM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Operational retrieval of atmospheric temperature, moisture, and ozone from MODIS infrared radiances","volume":"42","author":"Seemann","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2017, March 21). HiWATER: Land Cover Map of Heihe River Basin. Available online: http:\/\/card.westgis.ac.cn\/hiwater\/rsproduct."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1790","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-014-4877-5","article-title":"Land cover mapping using time series HJ-1\/CCD data","volume":"57","author":"Zhong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4973","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2461453","article-title":"Finer resolution land-cover mapping using multiple classifiers and multisource remotely sensed data in the Heihe River Basin","volume":"8","author":"Zhong","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7247","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2310233","article-title":"Cross-calibration of HJ-1\/CCD over a desert site using Landsat ETM + Imagery and ASTER GDEM product","volume":"52","author":"Zhong","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.02.001","article-title":"Landsat-8: Science and product vision for terrestrial global change research","volume":"145","author":"Roy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70100647","article-title":"A practical split-window algorithm for estimating land surface temperature from Landsat 8 data","volume":"7","author":"Du","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2017, February 04). USGS Home, Available online: https:\/\/glovis.usgs.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2016, May 02). MODIS Land Cover Product Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) Version 5.0, Available online: http:\/\/modis.gsfc.nasa.gov\/data\/atbd\/land_atbd.php."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.03.016","article-title":"Validation of remotely sensed surface temperature over an oak woodland landscape\u2014The problem of viewing and illumination geometries","volume":"148","author":"Ermida","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13140","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020260","article-title":"Intercomparison of surface energy flux measurement systems used during the HiWATER-MUSOEXE","volume":"118","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11494","DOI":"10.3390\/rs61111494","article-title":"Evaluation of MODIS LST products using longwave radiation ground measurements in the northern arid region of China","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/12\/1210\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:51:07Z","timestamp":1760208667000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/12\/1210"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,24]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9121210"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9121210","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,24]]}}}