{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T20:20:18Z","timestamp":1775852418293,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,5]],"date-time":"2017-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1512432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RGPIN-2017-04508, RGPAS-2017-507962, and RGPIN-2015-05289"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2017-04508, RGPAS-2017-507962, and RGPIN-2015-05289"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ocean wind and wave parameters can be measured by in-situ sensors such as anemometers and buoys. Since the 1980s, X-band marine radar has evolved as one of the remote sensing instruments for such purposes since its sea surface images contain considerable wind and wave information. The maturity and accuracy of X-band marine radar wind and wave measurements have already enabled relevant commercial products to be used in real-world applications. The goal of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the state of the art algorithms for ocean wind and wave information extraction from X-band marine radar data. Wind measurements are mainly based on the dependence of radar image intensities on wind direction and speed. Wave parameters can be obtained from radar-derived wave spectra or radar image textures for non-coherent radar and from surface radial velocity for coherent radar. In this review, the principles of the methodologies are described, the performances are compared, and the pros and cons are discussed. Specifically, recent developments for wind and wave measurements are highlighted. These include the mitigation of rain effects on wind measurements and wave height estimation without external calibrations. Finally, remaining challenges and future trends are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121261","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,5]],"date-time":"2017-12-05T11:50:28Z","timestamp":1512474628000},"page":"1261","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":149,"title":["Ocean Wind and Wave Measurements Using X-Band Marine Radar: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9622-5041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weimin","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John\u2019s, NL A1B 3X5, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6148-852X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinlong","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John\u2019s, NL A1B 3X5, Canada"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Gill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John\u2019s, NL A1B 3X5, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moat, B.I., Yelland, M.J., Pascal, R.W., and Molland, A.F. (2005, January 30\u201331). The effect of ship shape and anemometer location on wind speed measurements obtained from ships. Proceedings of the International Conference on Marine Computational Fluid Dynamics, Southampton, UK.","DOI":"10.3940\/rina.cfd.2005.14"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barale, V., and Gade, M. (2008). Nautical radar measurements in Europe: Applications of WaMoS II as a sensor for sea state, current and bathymetry. Remote Sensing of the European Seas, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-6772-3"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1109\/36.406690","article-title":"SAR-ocean wave inversion using image cross spectra","volume":"33","author":"Engen","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2246","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868882","article-title":"Wind and wave measurements using complex ERS-2 SAR wave mode data","volume":"38","author":"Lehner","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnsc.2008.03.008","article-title":"An overview on SAR measurements of sea surface wind","volume":"18","author":"Lin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Progr. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1109\/48.50697","article-title":"CODAR wave measurements from a North Sea semisubmersible","volume":"15","author":"Lipa","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803718","article-title":"HF radar wave and wind measurement over the Eastern China Sea","volume":"40","author":"Huang","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2006.888378","article-title":"Operational wave, current, and wind measurements with the Pisces HF radar","volume":"31","author":"Wyatt","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1029\/JC090iC01p01049","article-title":"A three-dimensional analysis of marine radar images for the determination of ocean wave directionality and surface currents","volume":"90","author":"Young","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3839(99)00032-0","article-title":"Use of nautical radar as a wave monitoring instrument","volume":"37","author":"Reichert","year":"1999","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Kerkering, H., and Weisberg, R.H. (2015). Ocean remote sensing using X-band shipborne nautical radar\u2014Applications in eastern Canada. Coastal Ocean Observing Systems, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-802022-7.00001-8"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Kerkering, H., and Weisberg, R.H. (2015). Wind, wave, and current retrieval utilizing X-band marine radars. Coastal Ocean Observing Systems, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-802022-7.00001-8"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.1983.350513","article-title":"The contribution of wedge scattering to the radar cross section of the ocean surface","volume":"GE-21","author":"Lyzenga","year":"1983","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Geernaert, G.L., and Plant, W.L. (1990). Electromagnetic scattering from the sea at low grazing angles. Surface Waves and Fluxes: Volume II\u2014Remote Sensing, Springer."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1109\/8.486302","article-title":"Wind-speed dependence of small-grazing-angle microwave backscatter from sea surfaces","volume":"44","author":"Lee","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1109\/36.499754","article-title":"Studies of dual polarized low grazing angle radar sea scatter in nearshore regions","volume":"34","author":"Trizna","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2004)021<1291:IOMRIF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Inversion of marine radar images for surface wave analysis","volume":"21","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3839(00)00019-3","article-title":"Analysis of directional wave fields using X-band navigation radar","volume":"40","author":"Guedes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2004.04.004","article-title":"A comparison of sea-state parameters from nautical radar images and buoy data","volume":"31","author":"Izquierdo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1007\/s00343-010-9056-8","article-title":"Measurements of ocean wave and current field using dual polarized X-band radar","volume":"28","author":"Cui","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2015.2503499","article-title":"Joint probabilistic data association tracker for extended target tracking applied to X-band marine radar data","volume":"41","author":"Vivone","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095958","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.9.095985","article-title":"Oil spill detection method using X-band marine radar imagery","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4840","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2230635","article-title":"Analysis of internal wave signatures in marine radar data","volume":"51","author":"Lund","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.811815","article-title":"Detection of wave groups in SAR images and radar image sequences","volume":"41","author":"Dankert","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1109\/36.911108","article-title":"The near-surface current velocity determined from image sequences of the sea surface","volume":"39","author":"Senet","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hessner, K., and Bell, P.S. (2009, January 11\u201314). High resolution current & bathymetry determined by nautical X-band radar in shallow waters. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans Conference, Bremen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSE.2009.5278333"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2009.2031878","article-title":"A novel strategy for the surface current determination from marine X-band radar data","volume":"7","author":"Serafino","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"231","article-title":"Surface current measurements using X-band marine radar with vertical polarization","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0049.1","article-title":"X-band wave radar for coastal upwelling detection off the southern coast of Sicily","volume":"34","author":"Raffa","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6700","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2587820","article-title":"Estimate of tidal constituents in nearshore waters using X-band marine radar image sequences","volume":"54","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-011-0478-4","article-title":"Mapping bathymetry using X-band marine radar data recorded from a moving vessel","volume":"61","author":"Bell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ocean Dyn."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2017.2668383","article-title":"Bathymetry determination from marine radar image sequences using the Hilbert transform","volume":"14","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Greenwood, C.E., Morrison, J., Murray, A., and Vogler, A. (2017, January 25\u201330). A method for approximating surface elevation from a shore mounted X-band radar with a low grazing angle. Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.10.012","article-title":"The approximation of a sea surface using a shore mounted X-band radar with low grazing angle","volume":"204","author":"Greenwood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hilmer, T., and Thornhill, E. (2014, January 7\u201310). Deterministic wave predictions from the WaMoS II. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans Conference, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS-TAIPEI.2014.6964526"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hilmer, T., and Thornhill, E. (2015, January 19\u201322). Observations of predictive skill for real-time deterministic sea waves from the WaMoS II. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans Conference, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS.2015.7404496"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Punzo, M., Lanciano, C., Tarallo, D., Bianco, F., Cavuoto, G., De Rosa, R., Di Fiore, V., Cianflone, G., Dominici, R., and Iavarone, M. (2016). Application of X-band wave radar for coastal dynamic analysis: Case test of Bagnara Calabra (South Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy). J. Sens., 2016.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6236925"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1111\/mms.12395","article-title":"Observations and tracking of killer whales (Orcinus orca) with shore-based X-band marine radar at a marine energy test site","volume":"33","author":"McCann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Mammal Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hatten, H., Seemann, J., Horstmann, J., and Ziemer, F. (1998, January 6\u201310). Azimuthal dependence of the radar cross section and the spectral background noise of a nautical radar at grazing incidence. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.1998.702255"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.5589\/m02-043","article-title":"Ocean winds from RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR","volume":"28","author":"Horstmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.818811","article-title":"Directional analysis of SAR images aiming at wind direction","volume":"42","author":"Koch","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3353","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JC002056","article-title":"Ocean wind fields retrieved from radar-image sequences","volume":"108","author":"Dankert","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2005.857524","article-title":"Wind- and wave-field measurements using marine X-band radar-image sequences","volume":"30","author":"Dankert","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH2083.1","article-title":"A marine radar wind sensor","volume":"24","author":"Dankert","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Dankert, H., Horstmann, J., and Rosenthal, W. (2004, January 20\u201324). Ocean surface winds retrieved from marine radar-image sequences. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Anchorage, AK, USA."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Ja\u00a8hne, B., Hau\u00dfecker, H., and Gei\u00dfler, P. (1999). Motion. Handbook of Computer Vision and Applications: Volume 2 Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3800","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2186457","article-title":"Wind retrieval from shipborne nautical X-band radar data","volume":"50","author":"Lund","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2014.2357426","article-title":"Comparison of algorithms for wind parameters extraction from shipborne X-band marine radar images","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00027.1","article-title":"Real-time ocean wind vector retrieval from marine radar image sequences acquired at grazing angle","volume":"30","author":"Horstmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, W., Liu, Y., and Gill, E.W. (2017). Texture-analysis-incorporated wind parameters extraction from rain-contaminated X-band nautical radar images. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9020166"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2014.12.019","article-title":"Determination of nearshore sea surface wind vector from marine X-band radar images","volume":"96","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2004.11.005","article-title":"Analysis of sea waves and wind from x-band radar","volume":"32","author":"Izquierdo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2508284","article-title":"An algorithm for wind direction retrieval from X-band marine radar images","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2539099","article-title":"A spectra-analysis-based algorithm for wind speed estimation from X-band nautical radar images","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2635078","article-title":"Wind direction estimation from rain-contaminated marine radar data using the ensemble empirical mode decomposition method","volume":"55","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793536909000047","article-title":"Ensemble empirical mode decomposition: A noise-assisted data analysis method","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Adapt. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793536909000187","article-title":"The multi-dimensional ensemble empirical mode decomposition method","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Adapt. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6218","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2723431","article-title":"An empirical mode decomposition method for sea surface wind measurements from X-band nautical radar data","volume":"55","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793536909000096","article-title":"On instantaneous frequency","volume":"1","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Adapt. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168208948413","article-title":"Spectral signal to clutter and thermal noise properties of ocean wave imaging synthetic aperture radars","volume":"3","author":"Alpers","year":"1982","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn:20070027","article-title":"Signal-to-noise ratio analysis to estimate ocean wave heights from X-band marine radar image time series","volume":"2","author":"Hessner","year":"2008","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Ziemer, F., and Dittmer, J. (1994, January 13\u201316). A system to monitor ocean wave fields. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans Conference, Brest, France."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Nieto-Borge, J.C., Hessner, K., and Reichert, K. (1999, January 11\u201316). Estimation of the significant wave height with X-band nautical radars. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, St. John\u2018s, NL, Canada."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"248","article-title":"Real time local sea state measurement using wave radar and ship motions","volume":"118","author":"Thornhill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans. SNAME"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.5957\/jsr.2011.55.2.73","article-title":"Ship motion and wave radar data fusion for shipboard wave measurement","volume":"55","author":"Stredulinsky","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ship Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-014-0725-6","article-title":"Marine radar ocean wave retrieval\u2019s dependency on range and azimuth","volume":"64","author":"Lund","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ocean Dyn."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"1","article-title":"Estimate of significant wave height from non-coherent marine radar images by multilayer perceptrons","volume":"2012","year":"2012","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2013.0281","article-title":"Iterative least-squares-based wave measurement using X-band nautical radar","volume":"8","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2012.2208179","article-title":"Surface current measurement under low sea state using dual polarized X-band nautical radar","volume":"5","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1007\/s00343-015-4147-1","article-title":"A new modulation transfer function for ocean wave spectra retrieval from X-band marine radar imagery","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2017.2713438","article-title":"A new modulation transfer function with range and azimuth dependence for ocean wave spectra retrieval from X-band marine radar observations","volume":"14","author":"Qiu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2012). WaMoS II Wave and Surface Current Monitoring System Operating Manual Version 4, OceanWaves GmbH."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16537","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71215851","article-title":"An adaptive method of wave spectrum estimation using X-band nautical radar","volume":"7","author":"Moloney","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"344","article-title":"A novel algorithm in estimating signal-to-noise ratio for ocean wave height inversion from X-band radar images","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1007\/s00343-016-5075-4","article-title":"Elimination of the impact of vessels on ocean wave height inversion with X-band wave monitoring radar","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2008.02.008","article-title":"Two-dimensional continuous wavelet transform of simulated spatial images of waves on a slowly varying topography","volume":"35","author":"Chuang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"1039","article-title":"Ocean remotely sensed image analysis using two-dimensional continuous wavelet transform","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antoine, J.P., Murenzi, R., Vandergheynst, P., and Ali, S.T. (2004). Two Dimensional Wavelets and Their Relatives, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511543395"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"An, J., Huang, W., and Gill, E.W. (May, January 29). 2-D continuous wavelet based algorithm for extracting wave information from nautical radar images. Proceedings of the IEEE Radar Conference, Ottawa, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2325782","article-title":"A self-adaptive wavelet-based algorithm for wave measurement using nautical radar","volume":"53","author":"An","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2621161","article-title":"Array beamforming algorithm for estimating waves and currents from marine X-band radar image sequences","volume":"55","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"4","article-title":"Beamforming: A versatile approach to spatial filtering","volume":"5","author":"Buckley","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE ASSP Mag."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Huang, X., Wang, Z., and Hou, G. (December, January 28). New method of estimation of phase, amplitude, and frequency based on all phase FFT spectrum analysis. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Intelligent Signal Processing and Communication Systems, Xiamen, China."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Henschel, M.D., Buckley, J.R., and Dobson, F.W. (1995, January 16\u201320). Estimates of wave height from low incidence angle sea clutter. Proceedings of the ICWHF, Banff, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buckley, J.R., and Aler, J. (1998, January 6\u201310). Estimation of ocean wave height from grazing incidence microwave backscatter. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.1998.702254"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buckley, J.R., and Aler, J. (1998, January 6\u201310). Enhancements in the determination of ocean surface wave height from grazing incidence microwave backscatter. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.1998.702254"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3373","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2272701","article-title":"An algorithm for estimation of wave height from shadowing in X-band radar sea surface images","volume":"52","author":"Gangeskar","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Gangeskar, R. (1998, January 24\u201328). Wave height derived by texture analysis of X-band radar sea surface images. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Gangeskar, R. (1998, January 24\u201328). An adaptive method for estimation of wave height based on statistics of sea surface images. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C04016","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JC002130","article-title":"Ocean surface determination from X-band radar-image sequences","volume":"109","author":"Dankert","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.2016.1177450","article-title":"Comparison of wave height measurement algorithms for ship-borne X-band nautical radar","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Pratt, W.K. (1991). Digital Image Processing, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1967.1138991","article-title":"Geometric shadowing of a random rough surface","volume":"15","author":"Smith","year":"1967","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1137\/S1052623496303470","article-title":"Convergence properties of the Nelder-Mead simplex method in low dimensions","volume":"9","author":"Lagarias","year":"1998","journal-title":"SIAMJ. Optim."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Huang, W., and Gill, E.W. (2016). Wave height estimation from ship-borne X-band nautical radar images. J. Sens., 2016.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/1078053"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Y., Lu, Z., Pian, G., and Liu, H. (2017). Wave height estimation from shadowing based on the acquired X-band marine radar images in coastal area. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080859"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2015.04.041","article-title":"Significant wave height estimation using SVR algorithms and shadowing information from simulated and real measured X-band radar images of the sea surface","volume":"101","author":"Cuadra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1023\/B:STCO.0000035301.49549.88","article-title":"A tutorial on support vector regression","volume":"14","author":"Smola","year":"2004","journal-title":"Stat. Comput."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4083","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2279547","article-title":"A new algorithm to retrieve wave parameters from marine X-band radar image sequences","volume":"52","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Bjo\u00a8rnsson, H., and Venegas, S.A. (1997). A Manual for EOF and SVD Analyses of Climatic Data, McGill University. CCGCR Report 97-1."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6501","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JCLI3062.1","article-title":"Empirical orthogonal functions: The medium is the message","volume":"22","author":"Monahan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Mulally, D., and Paik, H.W. (1993, January 16\u201318). Power spectral density estimation simulation using the maximum entropy method. Proceedings of the 36th Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Detroit, MI, USA."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.10.046016","article-title":"Improved algorithm for estimation of significant wave height from X-band radar image sequences","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2016.10.022","article-title":"An advanced inversion algorithm for significant wave height estimation based on random field","volume":"127","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6501","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2702192","article-title":"An automatic algorithm to retrieve wave height from X-band marine radar image sequence","volume":"55","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.1983.0107","article-title":"On the joint distribution of wave periods and amplitudes in a random wave field","volume":"389","year":"1983","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"10","article-title":"The joint distribution of ocean wave periods and ocean wave heights (Chinese)","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"1998","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1740","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2017.2733538","article-title":"Estimation of significant wave height from X-band marine radar images based on ensemble empirical mode decomposition","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.910221","article-title":"Sea-surface current features observed by Doppler radar","volume":"46","author":"Braun","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trizna, D.B. (2009, January 26\u201329). Coherent microwave marine radars for deterministic wave profile mapping, decameter-scale coastal current mapping, and ocean wave spectra measurements. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans Conference, Biloxi, MS, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS.2009.5422286"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyzenga, D., Nwogu, O., Trizna, D., and Hathaway, K. (2010, January 25\u201330). Ocean wave field measurements using X-band Doppler radars at low grazing angles. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2010.5650065"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5926","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2427748","article-title":"Comparison of incoherent and coherent wave field measurements using dual-polarized pulse-Doppler X-band radar","volume":"53","author":"Hackett","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trizna, D.B. (2016, January 10\u201313). Coherent marine radar measurements of ocean wave frequency spectra and near surface currents. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans Conference, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSAP.2016.7485714"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C03026","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JC005870","article-title":"A note on Doppler processing of coherent radar backscatter from the water surface: With application to ocean surface wave measurements","volume":"115","author":"Hwang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10259","DOI":"10.1029\/93JC00429","article-title":"Synthetic aperture radar interferometry applied to ship-generated internal waves in the 1989 Loch Linnhe Experiment","volume":"98","author":"Thompson","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.5194\/os-13-95-2017","article-title":"A simple method for retrieving significant wave height from Dopplerized X-band radar","volume":"13","author":"Carrasco","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5355","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2706067","article-title":"Significant wave height measured by coherent X-band radar","volume":"55","author":"Carrasco","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2478390","article-title":"A simple model for marine radar images of the ocean surface","volume":"12","author":"Lyzenga","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.10.042","article-title":"Implementation of S-band marine radar for surface wave measurement under precipitation","volume":"188","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3042","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2367654","article-title":"A backscattering model of rainfall over rough sea surface for synthetic aperture radar","volume":"53","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2614897","article-title":"A model of radar backscatter of rain-generated stalks on the ocean surface","volume":"55","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/12\/1261\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:52:46Z","timestamp":1760208766000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/12\/1261"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,5]]},"references-count":121,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9121261"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9121261","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,5]]}}}