{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T09:14:37Z","timestamp":1775553277835,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,12]],"date-time":"2017-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1513036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper evaluates the results of a 2016 study examining high-resolution open-source satellite data from 2002\u20132013 for sites across Egypt that mapped looting and site encroachment. The author features a looted tripartite coffin (now returned to Egypt) to suggest how satellite imagery might narrow down or provide the general provenience of looted objects and their possible site origins. Mapping where looting has occurred, the intensity of the looting, and emerging future threats to sites are important, but there is no established method at present to work backwards from unprovenanced looted items. Through an assessment of when objects enter countries illegally, the time-period of the looted objects, and an analysis of satellite imagery looting data concerning their country of origin, it is possible to suggest a potential provenance for looted objects. This approach shows how satellite data can be integrated into traditional provenance research. This study presents a workflow for how other projects might utilize a similar approach in other countries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121297","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,12]],"date-time":"2017-12-12T13:35:00Z","timestamp":1513085700000},"page":"1297","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Moving from Space-Based to Ground-Based Solutions in Remote Sensing for Archaeological Heritage: A Case Study from Egypt"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Sarah","family":"Parcak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120551","article-title":"Looting and the world\u2019s archaeological heritage: The inadequate response","volume":"34","author":"Brodie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.3764\/aja.117.1.0111","article-title":"Archaeological site looting in \u2018glocal\u2019 perspective: Nature, scope, and frequency","volume":"117","author":"Proulx","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"61","article-title":"Going, going, gone: Towards a satellite remote-sensing methodology for monitoring archaeological tell sites under threat in the Middle East","volume":"42","author":"Parcak","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Field Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00096496","article-title":"Patterns of looting in southern Iraq","volume":"82","author":"Stone","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1","article-title":"Remote sensing of cultural heritage in Iraq: A case study of Isin","volume":"3","author":"Hritz","year":"2008","journal-title":"TAARII Newslett."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"22","article-title":"The archaeological sites of Afghanistan in Google Earth","volume":"37","author":"Thomas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aer. Archaeol. Res. Group News"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1179\/009346910X12707320296838","article-title":"The utility of publicly available satellite imagery for investigating looting of archaeological sites in Jordan","volume":"35","author":"Contreras","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Field Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Lazrus, P.K., and Barker, A.W. (2012). The economics of the looted archaeological site of B\u00e2b edh-Dhr\u00e2\u2019: A view from Google Earth. All the King\u2019s Horses: Looting, Antiquities Trafficking and the Integrity of the Archaeological Record, Society for American Archaeology."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Coluzzi, R., Lasaponara, R., and Masini, N. (2010). Satellite Imagery Time Series for the Detection of Looting Activities at Archaeological Sites, EGU General Assembly."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X0006676X","article-title":"Huaqueros and remote-sensing imagery: Assessing looting damage in the Vir\u00fa Valley, Peru","volume":"84","author":"Contreras","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.02.055","article-title":"Looting marks\u2019 in space-borne SAR imagery: Measuring rates of archaeological looting in Apamea (Syria) with TerraSAR-X Staring Spotlight","volume":"178","author":"Tapete","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2014.04.003","article-title":"Combining structure-from-motion with high- and intermediate-resolution satellite images to document threats to archaeological heritage in arid environments","volume":"16","author":"Hesse","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"363","article-title":"Monitoring cultural landscapes from space: Evaluating archaeological sites in the Basin of Mexico using very high resolution satellite imagery","volume":"10","author":"Morehart","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agapiou, A., Lysandrou, V., and Diofantos, G. (2017). Hadjimitsis, Optical Remote Sensing Potentials for Looting Detection. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7040098"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"8","article-title":"Aerial innovations: Using drones to document looting","volume":"224","author":"Kersel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Orient. Inst. News Notes"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Bj\u00f8rgo, E., Boccardi, G., Cunliffe, E., Fiol, M., Jellison, T., Pedersen, W., and Saslow, C. (2014). Satellite-Based Damage Assessment to Cultural Heritage Sites in Syria, United Nations Institute for Training and Research. Available online: http:\/\/www.unitar.org\/unosat\/chs-syria."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Wolfinbarger, S., Drake, J., Ashcroft, E., and Hanson, K. (2017, October 02). Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing the Current Status of Syria\u2019s World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery. Available online: http:\/\/www.aaas.org\/page\/ancient-history-modern-destruction-assessing-current-status-syria-s-world-heritage-sites-using."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rayne, L., Bradbury, J., Mattingly, D., Philip, G., Bewley, R., and Wilson, A. (2017). From Above and on the Ground: Geospatial Methods for Recording Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7040100"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casana, J., and Panahipour, N. (2014). Notes on a disappearing past: Satellite-based monitoring of looting and damage to archaeological sites in Syria. J. East. Mediterr. Herit. Stud., 128\u2013151.","DOI":"10.5325\/jeasmedarcherstu.2.2.0128"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danti, M., Branting, S., and Penacho, S. (2017). The American Schools of Oriental Research Cultural Heritage Initiatives: Monitoring Cultural Heritage in Syria and Northern Iraq by Geospatial Imagery. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7040095"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.5615\/neareastarch.78.3.0154","article-title":"Responding to a cultural heritage crisis: The example of the Safeguarding the Heritage of Syria and Iraq Project","volume":"78","author":"Hanson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Near East. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowden, E., Tofel, B., Parcak, S., and Granger, R. (2017). Algorithmic Identification of Looted Archeological Sites from Space. Front. ICT.","DOI":"10.3389\/fict.2017.00004"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2017, October 26). Secretary Kerry Signs Cultural Property Protection Agreement with Egypt, Available online: https:\/\/2009-2017.state.gov\/r\/pa\/prs\/ps\/2016\/11\/264632.htm."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2017, October 28). H.R.1493\u2014Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act, Available online: https:\/\/www.congress.gov\/bill\/114th-congress\/house-bill\/1493\/text."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parcak, S., Childs, C., and Mumford, G. (2017). Using satellite data vs. ground based remote sensing: An assessment, with case studies from Egypt\u2019s Delta. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7040094"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.15184\/aqy.2016.1","article-title":"Satellite Evidence of Archaeological Site Looting in Egypt: 2002\u20132013","volume":"90","author":"Parcak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"International Council of Museums (ICOM) (2012). ICOM Publishes a New Emergency Red List: The Emergency Red List of Egyptian Cultural Objects at Risk, International Council of Museums (ICOM)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Lewis, D. (2017, October 28). How \u201cOperation Mummy\u2019s Curse\u201d is Helping Fight Terrorism. Smithsonian Magazine. Available online: https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/federal-agents-are-fighting-terrorism-tracking-down-missing-mummies-180955113\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Caulderwood, K. (2017, October 28). US Returns $2.5M In Egyptian Antiquities As Experts Call For Tougher Punishment on Smugglers. Available online: http:\/\/www.ibtimes.com\/us-returns-25m-egyptian-antiquities-experts-call-tougher-punishment-smugglers-1892622."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2017, October 28). 18 U.S. Code \u00a7 2315\u2014Sale or Receipt of Stolen Goods, Securities, Moneys, or Fraudulent State Tax Stamps. Available online: https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/18\/2315."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"United States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit (2017, October 28). United States of America, Appellee, V. Frederick SCHULTZ, Defendant-Appellant, Available online: http:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/us-2nd-circuit\/1456261.html."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Moeller, T. (2017, October 28). How Tomb Raiders Are Stealing Our History. Available online: https:\/\/www.nationalgeographic.com\/magazine\/2016\/06\/looting-ancient-blood-antiquities\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Silverman, D., and Houser, J. Unpublished Report on the Tripartite Coffin Set, Penn Museum; University of Pennsylvania Museum."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Robins, G. (1993). Women in Ancient Egypt, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2017, October 28). Ancient Art. Available online: https:\/\/caryatidconservation.sharepoint.com\/Pages\/ancient.aspx."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Malek, J., Magee, D., and Miles, E. (1999). Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Statues, Reliefs and Paintings. Volume VIII: Objects of Provenance Not Known: Statues, Peeters."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Moret, A. (1913). Sarcophages de L\u2019\u00e9poque Bubastite \u00e0 L\u2019\u00e9poque Sa\u00efte, Institut Fran\u00e7ais D\u2019arch\u00e9ologie Orientale du Caire."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Hodgkins, G. (2017). Report on the Radiocarbon Dates for the Mummy\u2019s Curse Case, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona. Unpublished work."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.5615\/neareastarch.78.3.0196","article-title":"Archaeological looting in Egypt: A geospatial View (case studies from Saqqara, Lisht, and el Hibeh)","volume":"78","author":"Parcak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Near East. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1017\/S0940739117000170","article-title":"What Does It Take to Protect Cultural Property? Some Aspects on the Fight against Illegal Trade of Cultural Goods from the Greek Point of View","volume":"24","author":"Nikolentzos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Cult. Prop."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"167","article-title":"Controlling the international market in antiquities: Reducing the harm, preserving the past","volume":"8","author":"Gerstenblith","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chic. J. Int. Law"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.15184\/aqy.2017.70","article-title":"Threats to the archaeological sites of Egypt: A response to Fradley and Sheldrick","volume":"91","author":"Parcak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s11759-007-9013-0","article-title":"Transcending borders: Objects on the move","volume":"3","author":"Kerselm","year":"2007","journal-title":"Archaeologies"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Brodiem, N., and Tubbm, K. (2001). Illicit Antiquities: The Theft of Culture and the Extinction of Archaeology, Routledge."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/12\/1297\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:53:41Z","timestamp":1760208821000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/9\/12\/1297"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,12]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs9121297"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs9121297","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,12]]}}}