{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T20:43:22Z","timestamp":1769114602820,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":174,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]],"date-time":"2010-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1269475200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Films of conducting polymers can be oxidized and reduced in a reversible way. Any intermediate oxidation state determines an electrochemical equilibrium. Chemical or physical variables acting on the film may modify the equilibrium potential, so that the film acts as a sensor of the variable. The working potential of polypyrrole\/DBSA (Dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid) films, oxidized or reduced under constant currents, changes as a function of the working conditions: electrolyte concentration, temperature or mechanical stress. During oxidation, the reactive material is a sensor of the ambient, the consumed electrical energy being the sensing magnitude. Devices based on any of the electrochemical properties of conducting polymers must act simultaneously as sensors of the working conditions. Artificial muscles, as electrochemical actuators constituted by reactive materials, respond to the ambient conditions during actuation. In this way, they can be used as actuators, sensing the surrounding conditions during actuation. Actuating and sensing signals are simultaneously included by the same two connecting wires.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s100402638","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]],"date-time":"2010-03-25T12:20:28Z","timestamp":1269519628000},"page":"2638-2674","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":93,"title":["Sensing and Tactile Artificial Muscles from Reactive Materials"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Laura Valero","family":"Conzuelo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electrochemistry and Intelligent Materials (CEMI), Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Cartagena, ETSII, E- 30203, Cartagena, Spain"},{"name":"Materials Department, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica de Yucat\u00e1n (CICY), C.P. 97200 M\u00e9rida, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Joaqu\u00edn","family":"Arias-Pardilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electrochemistry and Intelligent Materials (CEMI), Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Cartagena, ETSII, E- 30203, Cartagena, Spain"}]},{"given":"Juan V.","family":"Cauich-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials Department, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica de Yucat\u00e1n (CICY), C.P. 97200 M\u00e9rida, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Mascha Afra","family":"Smit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials Department, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica de Yucat\u00e1n (CICY), C.P. 97200 M\u00e9rida, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Toribio Fern\u00e1ndez","family":"Otero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electrochemistry and Intelligent Materials (CEMI), Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Cartagena, ETSII, E- 30203, Cartagena, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Stryer, L., Berg, J.M., and Tymoczko, J.L. (1995). Biochemistry, W.H. Freeman & Company. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aldissi, M. (1993). Intrinsically Conducting Polymers: An Emerging Technology, Kluwer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1952-0"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bockris, J.O.M., White, R.E., and Conway, B.E. (1999). Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publisher.","DOI":"10.1007\/b114166"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"de Rossi, D., and Osada, Y. Electrochemomechanical devices based on conducting polymers. Polymer Sensors and Actuators."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Elices, M., and Cahn, R.W. (2000). Structural Biological Materials. Design and Structure-Properties Relationships, Pergamon Materials Series."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Shahinpoor, M., and Schenider, H.-J. (2008). Intelligent Materials, Royal Society of Chemistry."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"433","article-title":"Electronic paramagnetic resonance and conductivity of a black electrolytic oxypyrrole","volume":"267","author":"Dallolio","year":"1968","journal-title":"Cr. Acad. Sci. C. Chim"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1039\/c39790000635","article-title":"Electrochemical polymerization of pyrrole","volume":"14","author":"Diaz","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(80)80348-2","article-title":"Chemical modification of a polypyrrole electrode surface","volume":"108","author":"Diaz","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"187","article-title":"A Chemical route to pyrrole polymer-films","volume":"20","author":"Salmon","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Part C: Polym. Lett"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(88)90259-7","article-title":"Conducting polypyrrole by chemical synthesis in water","volume":"24","author":"Rapi","year":"1988","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, G.G., Spinks, G.M., Kane-Maguire, L.A.P., and Teasdale, P.R. (2003). Conductive Electroactive Polymers: Intelligent Materials Systems, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420031898"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1039\/f19868202385","article-title":"Polyaniline, A Novel conducting polymer\u2014morphology and chemistry of its oxidation and reduction in aqueous-electrolytes","volume":"82","author":"Huang","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1039\/JS8621500161","article-title":"XXIX. On the production of a blue substance by the electrolysis of sulphate of aniline","volume":"15","author":"Letheby","year":"1862","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3618","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00878a003","article-title":"Investigation of kinetics and mechanism of anodic oxidation of aniline in aqueous sulfuric acid solution at a platinum electrode","volume":"84","author":"Mohilner","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2108787","article-title":"Performance study of aqueous polyaniline batteries","volume":"133","author":"Kitani","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, G.G., Spinks, G.M., Kane-Maguire, L.A.P., and Teasdale, P.R. (2003). Conductive Electroactive Polymers: Intelligent Materials Systems, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420031898"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(88)90243-3","article-title":"Novel organosynthetic routes to polythiophene and its derivatives","volume":"26","author":"Hotta","year":"1988","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1002\/pol.1980.130180103","article-title":"Preparation of thermostable and electric-conducting poly(2,5-thienylene)","volume":"18","author":"Yamamoto","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett. Ed"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(81)80592-X","article-title":"Electrooxidation of aromatic oligomers and conducting polymers","volume":"121","author":"Diaz","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, G.G., Spinks, G.M., Kane-Maguire, L.A.P., and Teasdale, P.R. (2003). Conductive Electroactive Polymers: Intelligent Materials Systems, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420031898"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(82)90015-8","article-title":"New electrochemically generated organic conducting polymers","volume":"135","author":"Tourillon","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L663","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.23.L663","article-title":"Electrical and optical-properties of electrochemically prepared polyfuran","volume":"23","author":"Ohsawa","year":"1984","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(90)90258-M","article-title":"Electrochemical synthesis and characterization of polyconjugated polyfuran","volume":"36","author":"Zotti","year":"1990","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4343","DOI":"10.1021\/j150663a030","article-title":"Substituent effects in the electropolymerization of aromatic heterocyclic-compounds","volume":"88","author":"Waltman","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.1039\/f19888402259","article-title":"A new conducting polymer-coated glucose sensor","volume":"84","author":"Pandey","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/0368-1874(82)85140-X","article-title":"Conducting poly-n-alkylpyrrole polymer-films","volume":"133","author":"Diaz","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(88)90248-2","article-title":"Poly-ortho-methoxyaniline\u2014a new soluble conducting polymer","volume":"25","author":"Macinnes","year":"1988","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4645","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217979205032930","article-title":"Optical properties of functionalized polythiophenes","volume":"19","author":"Somanathan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Mod. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freund, M.S., and Deore, B.A. (2007). Self-Doped Conducting Polymers, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470061725"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1039\/C39850000375","article-title":"Pyrrole styrene graft-copolymers","volume":"6","author":"Nazzal","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1021\/ma00205a011","article-title":"Chemical and electrochemical copolymerization of aniline with alkyl ring-substituted anilines","volume":"23","author":"Wei","year":"1990","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(93)91270-C","article-title":"Anodic electrosynthesis and cathodic electrodissolution of poly(2,5-di-(2-thienyl)pyrrole). A new way of processibility","volume":"61","author":"Carrasco","year":"1993","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Skotheim, T., Elsenbaumer, R.L., and Reynolds, J.R. (1997). Handbook of Conducting Polymers, Marcel Dekker."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(95)04168-4","article-title":"Electrogeneration of a composite polypyrrole-carboxymethylcellulose: kinetic study","volume":"397","author":"Otero","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4686(95)00308-2","article-title":"Electrogeneration of polypyrrole in presence of polyvinylsulphonate. Kinetic study","volume":"41","author":"Otero","year":"1996","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(96)04531-7","article-title":"Polypyrrole + polyacrylate composites: electrogeneration","volume":"410","author":"Otero","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(96)04615-3","article-title":"Influence of synthesis conditions on polypyrrole-poly(styrenesulphonate) composite electroactivity","volume":"412","author":"Otero","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.19970090210","article-title":"Hybrid organic-inorganic electrodes: the molecular material formed between polypyrrole and the phosphomolybdate anion","volume":"9","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1039\/a706864f","article-title":"Hybrid molecular materials based on organic molecules and the inorganic magnetic cluster [M-4(H2O)(2)(PW9O34)(2)](10-) (M2+ = Co, Mn)","volume":"8","author":"Coronado","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4686(97)00216-8","article-title":"Electrogeneration of polypyrrole-carboxymethylcellulose composites: electrochemical, microgravimetric and morphological studies","volume":"43","author":"Otero","year":"1998","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1016\/0032-3861(91)90226-9","article-title":"Polypyrrole conductive composites prepared by coprecipitation","volume":"32","author":"Ruckenstein","year":"1991","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1002\/adv.10025","article-title":"Carbon black filled conducting polymers and polymer blends","volume":"21","author":"Huang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Adv. Polym. Technol"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(97)00148-4","article-title":"Polypyrrole plus polyacrylate composites, kinetic study","volume":"429","author":"Otero","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Skotheim, T.A., Elsenhaumer, R.L., and Reynolds, J.R. (1998). Handbook of Conducting Polymers, Marcel Dekker Inc. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4686(87)85106-X","article-title":"Radiotracer study of the sorption of counter- and co-ions in tetracyanoquinodimethane and poly(vinyl ferrocene) modified electrodes","volume":"32","author":"Inzelt","year":"1987","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3560","DOI":"10.1021\/j100323a047","article-title":"Anion-exchange behavior of polypyrrole membranes","volume":"92","author":"Tsai","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1039\/C39860001415","article-title":"Effective adsorption desorption of cations on a polypyrrole polymer anion composite electrode","volume":"18","author":"Shimidzu","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(87)85088-X","article-title":"Charge-controllable polypyrrole polyelectrolyte composite membranes. II. Effect of incorporated anion size on the electrochemical oxidation reduction process","volume":"224","author":"Shimidzu","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2949","DOI":"10.1039\/ft9918702949","article-title":"Electrochemical and in situ electron-paramagnetic resonance studies of polypyrrole doped with polystyrene sulfonate","volume":"87","author":"Li","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00007a046","article-title":"Effect of sulfonic-acid group on polyaniline backbone","volume":"113","author":"Yue","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2007.10.072","article-title":"Polythiophene oxidation: rate coefficients, activation energy and conformational energies","volume":"53","author":"Otero","year":"2008","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2008.02.019","article-title":"Potentiostatic oxidation of poly(3-methylthiophene): influence of the prepolarization time at cathodic potentials on the kinetics","volume":"618","author":"Otero","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1039\/dc9898800151","article-title":"Charge transport in electroactive polymer-films","volume":"88","author":"Hillman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Bard, A.J. (1994). Electroanalytical Chemistry: A Series of Advances, Marcel Dekker."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Scholz, F. (2008). Conducting Polymers, Springer-Verlag."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2006.08.058","article-title":"Mixed-ion linear actuation behaviour of polypyrrole","volume":"52","author":"Kiefer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(95)04284-9","article-title":"Changes in the population of neutral species and charge carriers during electrochemical oxidation of polypyrrole","volume":"401","author":"Teruel","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1039\/a807124a","article-title":"The mechanisms of pyrrole electropolymerization","volume":"29","author":"Sadki","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0728(92)80495-P","article-title":"Electrochemomechanical properties from a bilayer\u2014polypyrrole nonconducting and flexible material artificial muscle","volume":"341","author":"Otero","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8307","DOI":"10.1021\/ma0000531","article-title":"Electromechanical properties of a humido-sensitive conducting polymer film","volume":"33","author":"Okuzaki","year":"2000","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200390113","article-title":"Conjugated polymer actuators for biomedical applications","volume":"15","author":"Smela","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"1","article-title":"Artificial muscles based on conducting polymers","volume":"41","author":"Cortes","year":"2003","journal-title":"E-Polymers"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1063\/1.91524","article-title":"Polymer-modified electrodes\u2014a new class of electrochromic materials","volume":"36","author":"Kaufman","year":"1980","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1002\/1616-3028(20020201)12:2<89::AID-ADFM89>3.0.CO;2-1","article-title":"Electrochromic window based on conducting poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)poly(styrene sulfonate)","volume":"12","author":"Heuer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2005.03.003","article-title":"Electrochromic organic and polymeric materials for display applications","volume":"27","author":"Mortimer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skotheim, T.A., Elsenbaumer, R.L., and Reynolds, J.R. (2007). Handbook of Conducting Polymers, CRC Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b12346"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orgel.2007.01.004","article-title":"Optimization, preparation, and electrical short evaluation for 30 cm2 active area dual conjugated polymer electrochromic windows","volume":"8","author":"Seshadri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Org. Electron"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00290a024","article-title":"The Potential Dependence of electrical-conductivity and chemical charge storage of poly(pyrrole) films on electrodes","volume":"107","author":"Feldman","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skotheim, T.A., Elsenbaumer, R.L., and Reynolds, J.R. (2007). Handbook of Conducting Polymers, CRC Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b12346"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnsc.2008.03.002","article-title":"Carbon nanotube and conducting polymer composites for supercapacitors","volume":"18","author":"Peng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Nat. Sci"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6139","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00386a061","article-title":"An ion gate membrane\u2014electrochemical control of ion permeability through a membrane with an embedded electrode","volume":"104","author":"Burgmayer","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4686(95)00337-1","article-title":"Development of an anion cation permeable free-standing membrane based on electrochemical switching of polypyrrole","volume":"41","author":"Ehrenbeck","year":"1996","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104022","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/18\/10\/104022","article-title":"Development and characterization of polypyrrole bi-layer and tri-layer thin porous films","volume":"18","author":"Chan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Smart. Mater. Struct"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6861","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00334a076","article-title":"Timed release of chemicals from polypyrrole films","volume":"106","author":"Zinger","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00242a006","article-title":"Electrically controlled release of hexacyanoferrate(4-) from polypyrrole","volume":"109","author":"Miller","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2005.05.012","article-title":"Controlled release of anti-inflammatory agent [alpha]-MSH from neural implants","volume":"106","author":"Zhong","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011001","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/127\/1\/011001","article-title":"Biomimetics, artificial muSCLES & NANO-BIO 2007: scientists meet doctors","volume":"127","author":"Otero","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035008","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3182\/3\/3\/035008","article-title":"Development of a biomimetic nanoporous membrane for the selective transport of charged proteins","volume":"3","author":"Binh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioinspir. Biomim"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1039\/B809485C","article-title":"Soft, wet, and reactive polymers. Sensing artificial muscles and conformational energy","volume":"19","author":"Otero","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1039\/b816681c","article-title":"Conducting polymer nanomaterials: electrosynthesis and applications","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AST.61.112","article-title":"Electro-chemo-mechanical actuators touching and sensing both, physical and chemical ambient","volume":"61","author":"Otero","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Tech"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Sansi\u00f1ena, J.M. (1998). University of the Basque Country (UPV\/EHU)."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/0302-4598(95)01802-L","article-title":"Artificial muscles based on conducting polymers","volume":"38","author":"Otero","year":"1995","journal-title":"Bioelectroch. Bioener"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(03)00518-5","article-title":"A sensing muscle","volume":"96","author":"Otero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Otero, T.F. Sensing muscles based on conducting polymers: conformational energy. Bremen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4686(98)00048-6","article-title":"The effect of pH on polymerization and volume change in PPy(DBS)","volume":"44","author":"Shimoda","year":"1998","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(00)00512-4","article-title":"The effects of varying deposition current density on bending behaviour in PPy(DBS)-actuated bending beams","volume":"89","author":"Maw","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(03)00757-0","article-title":"Cyclic voltammetric and electrochemomechanical characteristics of freestanding polypyrrole films in diluted media","volume":"438\u2013439","author":"Takashima","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13954","DOI":"10.1021\/jp0362842","article-title":"Revisiting the electrochemical and polymeric behavior of a polypyrrole free-standing electrode in aqueous solution","volume":"107","author":"Otero","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"John, M.H., Ian, W.H., and John, B. (1992). The Robotics Review, MIT Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2004.833135","article-title":"Artificial muscle technology: physical principles and naval prospects","volume":"29","author":"Madden","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE J. Oceanic. Eng"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2005.04.001","article-title":"Personal power systems","volume":"31","author":"Leal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Progt. Energ. Combust"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02172636","article-title":"Rapid swelling and deswelling of reversible gels of polymeric acids by ionization","volume":"5","author":"Katchalsky","year":"1949","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/166267a0","article-title":"Polyvinylphosphate contractile systems","volume":"166","author":"Katchalsky","year":"1950","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1038\/165514a0","article-title":"Reversible dilation and contraction by changing the state of ionization of high-polymer acid networks","volume":"165","author":"Kuhn","year":"1950","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1002\/pol.1955.120168212","article-title":"Mechanochemistry and ion exchange","volume":"16","author":"Katchalsky","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.19920040406","article-title":"Conjugated polymers and the bending cantilever method\u2014electrical muscles and smart devices","volume":"4","author":"Pei","year":"1992","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Otero, T.F., Angulo, E., Rodriguez, J., and Santamaria, C. Dispositivos laminares que emplean pol\u00edmeros conductores capaces de provocar movimientos mec\u00e1nicos, Spanish patent 1992\/1\/17."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Otero, T.F., Rodriguez, J., and Santamaria, C. M\u00fasculos artificiales formados por multicapas: pol\u00edmeros conductores-no conductores, Spanish patent 1992\/12\/28."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/S0928-4931(98)00036-8","article-title":"Actuative properties of polyaniline fibers under electrochemical stimulation","volume":"6","author":"Mazzoldi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mat. Sci. Eng. C-Bio"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"A164","article-title":"Development of an artificial muscle fiber composed of the conducting polymer actuator polypyrrole","volume":"122","author":"Madden","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-6779(02)00453-8","article-title":"High performance conducting polymer actuators utilising a tubular geometry and helical wire interconnects","volume":"138","author":"Ding","year":"2003","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2005.12.030","article-title":"Tubular linear actuators using conducting polymer, polypyrrole","volume":"568","author":"Yamato","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2009.06.006","article-title":"Effect of synthesis conditions on the properties of wet spun polypyrrole fibres","volume":"159","author":"Foroughi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/12\/3\/318","article-title":"The amounts per cycle of polypyrrole electromechanical actuators","volume":"12","author":"Spinks","year":"2003","journal-title":"Smart. Mater. Struct"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1246\/cl.2003.800","article-title":"Polypyrrole-metal coil composites as fibrous artificial muscles","volume":"32","author":"Hara","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chem. Lett"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2724","DOI":"10.1039\/B409169H","article-title":"Enhancement in electrochemical strain of a polypyrrole-metal composite film actuator","volume":"14","author":"Hara","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2004.06.021","article-title":"Polypyrrole-metal coil composite actuators as artificial muscle fibres","volume":"146","author":"Hara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200390075","article-title":"A conducting polymer artificial muscle with 12% linear strain","volume":"15","author":"Bay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1072651","article-title":"Use of ionic liquids for pi-conjugated polymer electrochemical devices","volume":"297","author":"Lu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012001","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/127\/1\/012001","article-title":"A biomorphic origami actuator fabricated by folding a conducting paper","volume":"127","author":"Okuzaki","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5918","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.39.5918","article-title":"Direct measurement and mechanism of electro-chemomechanical expansion and contraction in polypyrrole films","volume":"39","author":"Kaneto","year":"2000","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(03)00754-5","article-title":"Structure property correlation: electrochemomechanical deformation in polypyrrole films","volume":"438","author":"Pandey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1246\/bcsj.77.1425","article-title":"The correlation between electrically induced stress and mechanical tensile strength of polypyrrole actuators","volume":"77","author":"Zama","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn"},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"Salaneck, W.R., Clark, D.T., and Samuelsen, E.J. (1991). Science and Application of Conducting Polymers, IOP Publishing Ltd."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10507","DOI":"10.1021\/j100204a071","article-title":"Electrochemical applications of the bending beam method. I. Mass-transport and volume changes in polypyrrole during redox","volume":"96","author":"Pei","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(98)00414-8","article-title":"In situ atomic force microscopy study of polypyrrole synthesis and the volume changes induced by oxidation and reduction of the polymer","volume":"462","author":"Suarez","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4095(199908)11:11<953::AID-ADMA953>3.0.CO;2-H","article-title":"Surprising volume change in PPy(DBS): an atomic force microscopy study","volume":"11","author":"Smela","year":"1999","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9395","DOI":"10.1021\/jp004126u","article-title":"Volume change in polypyrrole studied by atomic force microscopy","volume":"105","author":"Smela","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2054847","article-title":"Nanoscale Dimensional changes and optical-properties of polyaniline measured by in-situ spectroscopic ellipsometry","volume":"141","author":"Barbero","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4686(95)00500-5","article-title":"Ion conductivity and permselectivity measurements of polypyrrole membranes at variable states of oxidation","volume":"41","author":"Ehrenbeck","year":"1996","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s100080050065","article-title":"Electrochemical measurements of the ion conductivity, permselectivity and transference numbers of polypyrrole and polypyrrole derivatives","volume":"2","author":"Juttner","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Solid State Electrochem"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1391192","article-title":"Volume changes of poly(2-methylaniline) upon redox switching\u2014anion and relaxation effects","volume":"3","author":"Andrade","year":"2000","journal-title":"Electrochem. Solid-State Lett"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2003.07.026","article-title":"Swelling and volume changes of polyaniline upon redox switching","volume":"561","author":"Lizarraga","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1038\/43576","article-title":"Nanotechnology\u2014synthetic molecular motors","volume":"401","author":"Davis","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200504313","article-title":"Synthetic molecular motors and mechanical machines","volume":"46","author":"Kay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Edit"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3718","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(93)90503-O","article-title":"Electrochemical muscles: bending strips built from conjugated polymers","volume":"57","author":"Pei","year":"1993","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(94)03252-2","article-title":"The electrochemical actuator using electrochemically-deposited poly-aniline film","volume":"71","author":"Takashima","year":"1995","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.19930050905","article-title":"Electrochemical muscles\u2014micromachining fingers and corkscrews","volume":"5","author":"Smela","year":"1993","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540","DOI":"10.1126\/science.290.5496.1540","article-title":"Microfabricating conjugated polymer actuators","volume":"290","author":"Jager","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2335","DOI":"10.1126\/science.288.5475.2335","article-title":"Microrobots for micrometer-size objects in aqueous media: Potential tools for single-cell manipulation","volume":"288","author":"Jager","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-6779(96)80158-5","article-title":"Conducting polymer artificial muscles","volume":"78","author":"Baughman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(02)00426-4","article-title":"Investigation of bi-ionic contribution for the enhancement of bending actuation in polypyrrole film","volume":"89","author":"Takashima","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.01.001","article-title":"Conducting polymer electrochemical actuator made of high-strength three-layered composite films of polythiophene and polypyrrole","volume":"99","author":"Han","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sensor Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2485","DOI":"10.1039\/B303424K","article-title":"Grafting and electrochemical characterisation of poly-(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) films, on Nafion and on radiation-grafted polystyrenesulfonate-polyvinylidene fluoride composite surfaces","volume":"13","author":"Higgins","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2004.11.001","article-title":"New electro-active paper actuator using conducting polypyrrole: actuation behaviour in LiClO4 acetonitrile solution","volume":"149","author":"Deshpande","year":"2005","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_145","unstructured":"Blonsky, P. M., and Meridian, I. (1997). Structurally stable gelled electrolytes."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(02)00258-6","article-title":"Characterization of UV-cured gel polymer electrolytes for rechargeable lithium batteries","volume":"110","author":"Song","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3569","DOI":"10.1002\/app.13055","article-title":"Feasibility of conducting semi-interpenetrating networks based on a poly(ethylene oxide) network and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) in actuator design","volume":"90","author":"Vidal","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2005.03.103","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of conducting interpenetrating polymer networks for new actuators","volume":"46","author":"Plesse","year":"2005","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2006.11.053","article-title":"Poly(ethylene oxide)\/polybutadiene based IPNs synthesis and characterization","volume":"48","author":"Plesse","year":"2007","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.05.032","article-title":"High ionic conductivity and mechanical strength of solid polymer electrolytes based on NBR\/ionic liquid and its application to an electrochemical actuator","volume":"128","author":"Cho","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sensor Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2007.12.087","article-title":"Self-supported semi-interpenetrating polymer networks for new design of electrochromic devices","volume":"53","author":"Beouch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_152","unstructured":"Vincenzini, P., BarCohen, Y., and Carpi, F. (2009). Artificial Muscle Actuators Using Electroactive Polymers, Trans Tech Publications Ltd."},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"Otero, T.F., Cortes, M.T., and Boyano, I. (2002). Smart Structures and Materials 2002: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad)."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2007.01.081","article-title":"Linear movements from two bending triple-layers","volume":"53","author":"Otero","year":"2007","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10800-005-9048-0","article-title":"Polypyrrole artificial muscles: a new rhombic element. Construction and electrochemomechanical characterization","volume":"36","author":"Otero","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Electrochem"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/15\/2\/006","article-title":"Realization of conducting polymer actuators using a controlled volume microsyringe system","volume":"15","author":"Vozzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart. Mater. Struct"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2006.886256","article-title":"Performance quantification of conducting polymer actuators for real applications: a microgripping system","volume":"12","author":"Alici","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE ASME Trans. Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1126\/science.268.5218.1735","article-title":"Controlled folding of micrometer-size structures","volume":"268","author":"Smela","year":"1995","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4095(199802)10:3<233::AID-ADMA233>3.0.CO;2-M","article-title":"A general-purpose conjugated-polymer device array for imaging","volume":"10","author":"Pede","year":"1998","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1109\/84.809051","article-title":"Electrochemically driven polypyrrole bilayers for moving and positioning bulk micromachined silicon plates","volume":"8","author":"Smela","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. S"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4095(199911)11:16<1343::AID-ADMA1343>3.0.CO;2-V","article-title":"A microfabricated movable electrochromic \u201cpixel\u201d based on polypyrrole","volume":"11","author":"Smela","year":"1999","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-6779(98)01000-5","article-title":"Polypyrrole microactuators","volume":"102","author":"Jager","year":"1999","journal-title":"Synth. Met"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4095(200101)13:1<76::AID-ADMA76>3.0.CO;2-I","article-title":"Perpendicular actuation with individually controlled polymer microactuators","volume":"13","author":"Jager","year":"2001","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-002-1414-8","article-title":"Microactuators based on conducting polymers","volume":"373","author":"Roemer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.200600869","article-title":"Polypyrrole microtubule actuators for seizing and transferring microparticles","volume":"17","author":"He","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater"},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"Kiefer, R., Mandviwalla, X., Archer, R., Tjahyono, S.S., Wang, H., MacDonald, B., Bowmaker, G.A., Kilmartin, P.A., and Travas-Sejdic, J. (2008). Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad) 2008."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1039\/b313132g","article-title":"Artificial muscle: movement and position control","volume":"3","author":"Otero","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Commun"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S0302-4598(96)05112-4","article-title":"Bilayer dimensions and movement in artificial muscles","volume":"42","author":"Otero","year":"1997","journal-title":"Bioelectroch. Bioener"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4095(199804)10:6<491::AID-ADMA491>3.0.CO;2-Q","article-title":"Soft and wet conducting polymers for artificial muscles","volume":"10","author":"Otero","year":"1998","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_170","unstructured":"Otero, T.F., and Cortes, M.T. (2000). Smart Structures and Materials 2000: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad)."},{"key":"ref_171","unstructured":"Otero, T.F., and Cortes, M.T. (2001). Smart Structures and Materials 2001: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2004.01.085","article-title":"Nucleation, non-stoiquiometry and sensing muscles from conducting polymers","volume":"49","author":"Otero","year":"2004","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200390066","article-title":"Artificial muscles with tactile sensitivity","volume":"15","author":"Otero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_174","unstructured":"Otero, T.F., Cortes, M.T., Boyano, L., and Vazquez, G. (2004). Smart Structures and Materials 2004: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad)."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/4\/2638\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:01:54Z","timestamp":1760220114000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/4\/2638"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]]},"references-count":174,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s100402638"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s100402638","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]]}}}