{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T14:47:59Z","timestamp":1773413279638,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,20]],"date-time":"2010-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1271721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We investigated the optimal spectral bands for the identification of lighting types and the estimation of four major indices used to measure the efficiency or character of lighting. To accomplish these objectives we collected high-resolution emission spectra (350 to 2,500 nm) for forty-three different lamps, encompassing nine of the major types of lamps used worldwide. The narrow band emission spectra were used to simulate radiances in eight spectral bands including the human eye photoreceptor bands (photopic, scotopic, and \u201cmeltopic\u201d) plus five spectral bands in the visible and near-infrared modeled on bands flown on the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM). The high-resolution continuous spectra are superior to the broad band combinations for the identification of lighting type and are the standard for calculation of Luminous Efficacy of Radiation (LER), Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) and Color Rendering Index (CRI). Given the high cost that would be associated with building and flying a hyperspectral sensor with detection limits low enough to observe nighttime lights we conclude that it would be more feasible to fly an instrument with a limited number of broad spectral bands in the visible to near infrared. The best set of broad spectral bands among those tested is blue, green, red and NIR bands modeled on the band set flown on the Landsat Thematic Mapper. This set provides low errors on the identification of lighting types and reasonable estimates of LER and CCT when compared to the other broad band set tested. None of the broad band sets tested could make reasonable estimates of Luminous Efficacy (LE) or CRI. The photopic band proved useful for the estimation of LER. However, the three photoreceptor bands performed poorly in the identification of lighting types when compared to the bands modeled on the Landsat Thematic Mapper. Our conclusion is that it is feasible to identify lighting type and make reasonable estimates of LER and CCT using four or more spectral bands with minimal spectral overlap spanning the 0.4 to 1.0 um region.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s100403961","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,20]],"date-time":"2010-04-20T10:11:27Z","timestamp":1271758287000},"page":"3961-3988","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":266,"title":["Spectral Identification of Lighting Type and Character"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Christopher D.","family":"Elvidge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation Group, Solar and Terrestrial Division, NOAA National Geophysical Data Center , 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305, USA"}]},{"given":"David M.","family":"Keith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marshall Design Inc., Boulder, CO, USA"}]},{"given":"Benjamin T.","family":"Tuttle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA"},{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Denver, Denver, CO, USA"}]},{"given":"Kimberly E.","family":"Baugh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"International Energy Agency (2006). Light\u2019s Labour Lost."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1113090","article-title":"The specter of fuel based lighting","volume":"308","author":"Mills","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Rich, C., and Longcore, T. (2005). Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting, Island Press."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1108712","article-title":"Solid state light sources getting smarter","volume":"308","author":"Schubert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0778-86","article-title":"Night-time images of the earth from space","volume":"239","author":"Croft","year":"1978","journal-title":"Sci. Amer"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-8711.2001.04882.x","article-title":"The first world atlas of the artificial night sky brightness","volume":"328","author":"Cinzano","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mon. Notices Royal Astron. Soc"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.3390\/s7091962","article-title":"Global distribution and density of constructed impervious surfaces","volume":"7","author":"Elvidge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University; and Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Gridded Population of the World Version 3 (GPWv3): Population Grids. Available online: http:\/\/sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu\/gpw\/ (accessed on 6 April 2010)."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2009.01.009","article-title":"A global poverty map derived from satellite data","volume":"35","author":"Elvidge","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Yang, X.J. Urban Remote Sensing: Monitoring, Synthesis and Modeling in the Urban Environment, Wiley-Blackwell. In Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309346649","article-title":"Paving the planet: impervious surface as proxy measure of the human ecological footprint","volume":"33","author":"Sutton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geog"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600981525","article-title":"The Nightsat mission concept","volume":"28","author":"Elvidge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s10708-007-9104-x","article-title":"Potential for global mapping of development via a Nightsat mission","volume":"69","author":"Elvidge","year":"2007","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"CIE 1924."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"CIE 1951."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00249-8","article-title":"Effects of Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper and Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus radiometric and geometric calibrations and corrections on landscape characterization","volume":"78","author":"Vogelmann","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Pettit, D. (2010). Cities at night: an orbital perspective. NASA Ask Magazine, In Press."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.2113\/gsecongeo.60.4.715","article-title":"Analysis of rocks by spectral infrared emission (8 to 25 microns)","volume":"60","author":"Lyon","year":"1965","journal-title":"Economic Geology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1979.24.4.0673","article-title":"Reflectance spectrosopy of marine-phytoplankton 2. Simple-model of ocean color","volume":"24","author":"Wilson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.2113\/gsecongeo.78.4.761","article-title":"Use of reflectance spectra of native plant-species for interpreting airborne multispectral scanner data in the East Tintic Mountains, Utah","volume":"78","author":"Milton","year":"1983","journal-title":"Economic Geology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169008955129","article-title":"Visible and near-infrared reflectance characteristics of dry plant materials","volume":"11","author":"Elvidge","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Remo. Sens"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.1.340","article-title":"Melanopsin: An opsin in melanophores, brain, and eye","volume":"95","author":"Provencio","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1085457","article-title":"Seeing more clearly: Recent advances in understanding retinal circuitry","volume":"302","author":"He","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Hollan, J. (2004). Cancer and Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6405","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-16-06405.2001","article-title":"Action spectrum for melatonin regulation in humans: evidence for a novel circadian photoreceptor","volume":"21","author":"Brainard","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neuro"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000190539.03500.c1","article-title":"Night work and risk of breast cancer","volume":"17","author":"Schernhammer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10200","article-title":"Meeting report: the role of environmental lighting and circadian disruption in cancer and other diseases","volume":"115","author":"Stevens","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-079X.2007.00473.x","article-title":"The dark side of light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences","volume":"43","author":"Navara","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pineal Res"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/07420520801921572","article-title":"Light at night co-distributes with incident breast but not lung cancer in the female population of Israel","volume":"25","author":"Kloog","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chronobiology Int"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"IES Light and Human Health Committee (2008). Light and Human Health: An Overview of the Impact of Light on Visual, Circadian, Neuroendocrine and Neurobehavioral Responses, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IES TM-18-2008."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168508948492","article-title":"Spectral characterization of the Landsat Thematic Mapper sensors","volume":"6","author":"Markham","year":"1985","journal-title":"I. J. Remo. Sens"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"SAS Institute Inc (2008). JMP\u00ae 8 Introductory Guide, SAS Institute Inc."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"CIE Commission Internationale de l\u2019\u00c9clairage Proceedings, Paris, France. Uniform Color Space (UCS)."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Wyszecki, G., and Stiles, W.S. (1985). Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae, John Wiley and Sons. [2nd ed]."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"CIE (1995) Method of Measuring and Specifying Colour Rendering Properties of Light Sources."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/4\/3961\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:02:12Z","timestamp":1760220132000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/4\/3961"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,20]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s100403961"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s100403961","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,20]]}}}