{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T16:05:23Z","timestamp":1768320323120,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,30]],"date-time":"2010-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1272585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydrogels have found wide application in biosensors due to their versatile nature. This family of materials is applied in biosensing either to increase the loading capacity compared to two-dimensional surfaces, or to support biospecific hydrogel swelling occurring subsequent to specific recognition of an analyte. This review focuses on various principles underpinning the design of biospecific hydrogels acting through various molecular mechanisms in transducing the recognition event of label-free analytes. Towards this end, we describe several promising hydrogel systems that when combined with the appropriate readout platform and quantitative approach could lead to future real-life applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s100504381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,30]],"date-time":"2010-04-30T11:04:42Z","timestamp":1272625482000},"page":"4381-4409","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":73,"title":["Responsive Hydrogels for Label-Free Signal Transduction within Biosensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Kamila","family":"Gawel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Barriet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"NTNU NanoLab, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway"}]},{"given":"Marit","family":"Sletmoen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway"}]},{"given":"Bj\u00f8rn Torger","family":"Stokke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(91)90163-I","article-title":"Time-dependent response of ionic polymer networks to pH and ionic-strength changes","volume":"70","author":"Peppas","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2916","DOI":"10.1021\/ma00142a081","article-title":"Swelling of ionic gels - quantitative performance of the donnan theory","volume":"17","author":"Ricka","year":"1984","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1002\/macp.1994.021950401","article-title":"Stimuli-sensitivities of hydrogels containing phosphate groups","volume":"195","author":"Miyata","year":"1994","journal-title":"Macromol. Chem. Phys"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-4628(20000822)77:8<1760::AID-APP13>3.0.CO;2-J","article-title":"Thermoreversible hydrogels X: Synthesis and swelling behavior of the (N-isopropylacrylamide-co-sodium 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropyl sulfonate) copolymeric hydrogels","volume":"77","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5045","DOI":"10.1021\/ma00071a010","article-title":"Sodium chloride-induced phase-transition in nonionic poly(n-isopropylacrylamide) gel","volume":"26","author":"Park","year":"1993","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Cohen Addad, J.P. (1996). Physical Properties of Polymeric Gels, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4462","DOI":"10.1063\/1.458729","article-title":"Kinetics of electrically and chemically-induced swelling in polyelectrolyte gels","volume":"93","author":"Grimshaw","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-3659(02)00457-1","article-title":"Surfactant induced drug delivery based on the use of thermosensitive polymers","volume":"88","author":"Eeckman","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-7021(07)70049-4","article-title":"Bioresponsive hydrogels","volume":"10","author":"Ulijn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Materials Today"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1039\/b601776m","article-title":"Enzyme-responsive materials: A new class of smart biomaterials","volume":"16","author":"Ulijn","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-409X(01)00241-1","article-title":"Biomolecule-sensitive hydrogels","volume":"54","author":"Miyata","year":"2002","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Del. Rev"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Barberos, A., Su\u00e1rez, I.J., Sierra-Mart\u00edn, B., Fern\u00e1ndez-Nieves, A., de las Nieves, F.J., Marquez, M., Rubio-Retama, J., and L\u00f3pez-Cabarcos, E. (2009). Gels and microgels for nanotechnological applications. Adv. Colloid Int. Sci, 88\u2013108.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2008.12.004"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1039\/B811620B","article-title":"Bioresponsive hydrogels for sensing applications","volume":"5","author":"Hendrickson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Treloar, L.R.G. (1975). The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, Clarendon Press."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-56791-7_1","article-title":"Volume phase-transition and related phenomena of polymer gels","volume":"109","author":"Shibayama","year":"1993","journal-title":"Adv. Polym. Sci"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-2509(91)80177-Z","article-title":"Equilibrium swelling behavior of pH-sensitve hydrogels","volume":"46","author":"Peppas","year":"1991","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4867","DOI":"10.1021\/ma981945s","article-title":"Investigation of the swelling response and loading of ionic microgels with drugs and proteins: Dependence on cross-link density","volume":"32","author":"Eichenbaum","year":"1999","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1002\/masy.200450645","article-title":"Application of sensitive hydrogels in chemical and pH sensors","volume":"210","author":"Gerlach","year":"2004","journal-title":"Macromol. Symp"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00068-X","article-title":"A disposable biosensor employing a glucose-sensitive biochemomechanical gel","volume":"18","author":"Suzuki","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3096","DOI":"10.1021\/la035555x","article-title":"Glucose-sensitive inverse opal hydrogels: Analysis of optical diffraction response","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2004","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2004.08.029","article-title":"Holographic sensors for the determination of ionic strength","volume":"527","author":"Marshall","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(03)00520-3","article-title":"An experimental study about hydrogels for the fabrication of optical fiber humidity sensors","volume":"96","author":"Arregui","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators, B"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5086","DOI":"10.1021\/ac800292k","article-title":"Determination of swelling of responsive gels with nanometer resolution. Fiber-optic based platform for hydrogels as signal transducers","volume":"80","author":"Tierney","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2006.10.1201","article-title":"Layer-by-layer assembly of a magnetic nanoparticle shell on a thermoresponsive microgel core","volume":"311","author":"Wong","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cocis.2008.04.001","article-title":"Layer-by-layer assembly on stimuli-responsive microgels","volume":"13","author":"Wong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5452","DOI":"10.1039\/b811189h","article-title":"Direct and label-free detection of cholic acid based on molecularly imprinted photonic hydrogels","volume":"18","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1021\/ac701613t","article-title":"Label-free DNA detection of hepatitis C virus based on modified conducting polypyrrole films at microelectrodes and atomic force microscopy tip-integrated electrodes","volume":"80","author":"Riccardi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Tanford, C. (1961). Physical Chemistry of Macrmolecules, John Wiley and Sons Inc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-7822(98)00037-9","article-title":"Sclerox-chitosan co-gels: Effects of charge density on swelling of gels in ionic aqueous solution and in poor solvents, and on the rehydration of dried state","volume":"6","author":"Guo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Polym. Gels Networks"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1038\/351302a0","article-title":"Saccharide-sensitive phase-transition of a lectin-loaded gel","volume":"351","author":"Kokufata","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2006.01.008","article-title":"Concanavalin A for in vivo glucose sensing: A biotoxicity review","volume":"22","author":"Ballerstadt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.32.6.499","article-title":"Glycosylated insulin complexed to Concanavalin A. Biochemical basis for a closed-loop insulin delivery system","volume":"32","author":"Brownlee","year":"1983","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1038\/39834","article-title":"Polymerized colloidal crystal hydrogel films as intelligent chemical sensing materials","volume":"389","author":"Holtz","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1021\/ac970853i","article-title":"Intelligent polymerized crystalline colloidal arrays: Novel chemical sensor materials","volume":"70","author":"Holtz","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.08.018","article-title":"Epoxide functionalized polymerized crystalline colloidal arrays","volume":"106","author":"Kamenjicki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators, B"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10408349508050556","article-title":"Glucose-oxidase as an analytical reagent","volume":"25","author":"Raba","year":"1995","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1295\/polymj.16.625","article-title":"Glucose-induced permeation control of insulin through a complex membrane consisting of immobilized glucose-oxidase and a poly(amine)","volume":"16","author":"Ishihara","year":"1984","journal-title":"Polym. J"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4095(20020517)14:10<743::AID-ADMA743>3.0.CO;2-H","article-title":"A chemically synthesized artificial pancreas: Release of insulin from glucose\u2013responsive hydrogels","volume":"14","author":"Brahim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-3659(85)90041-0","article-title":"Glucose sensitive membranes for controlled delivery of insulin: Insulin transport studies","volume":"2","author":"Albin","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3322","DOI":"10.1021\/ja021037h","article-title":"Photonic crystal carbohydrate sensors: Low ionic strength sugar sensing","volume":"125","author":"Asher","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1021\/ja038187s","article-title":"A general photonic crystal sensing motif: Creatinine in bodily fluids","volume":"126","author":"Sharma","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/40.1.130","article-title":"A step forward in enzymatic measurement of creatinine","volume":"40","author":"Fossati","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin. Chem"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0928-4931(02)00062-0","article-title":"Development of potentiometric creatinine-sensitive biosensor based on ISFET and creatinine deiminase immobilised in PVA\/SbQ photopolymeric membrane","volume":"21","author":"Soldatkin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng., C"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(02)00283-7","article-title":"Creatinine sensitive biosensor based on ISFETs and creatinine deiminase immobilised in BSA membrane","volume":"58","author":"Soldatkin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.2144\/98253pf01","article-title":"Mutation typing using electrophoresis and gel-immobilized acrydite (TM) probes","volume":"25","author":"Kenney","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biotechniques"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.2144\/02324st07","article-title":"Acrylamide capture of DNA-bound complexes: Electrophoretic purification of transcription factors","volume":"32","author":"Nelson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biotechniques"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2006.05.057","article-title":"Capillary electrophoresis for capture and concentrating of target nucleic acids by affinity gels modified to contain single-stranded nucleic acid probes","volume":"578","author":"Chan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.2000.3573","article-title":"The kinetics of oligonucleotide replacements","volume":"297","author":"Reynaldo","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1645529","article-title":"Mechanical properties of a reversible, DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogel","volume":"126","author":"Lin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomech. Eng"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.1021\/bm0504330","article-title":"DNA-responsive hydrogels that can shrink or swell","volume":"6","author":"Murakami","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1021\/bm900218c","article-title":"Development of an Oligonucleotide Functionalized Hydrogel Integrated on a High Resolution Interferometric Readout Platform as a Label-Free Macromolecule Sensing Device","volume":"10","author":"Tierney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1688","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200700366","article-title":"Controlled trapping and release of quantum dots in a DNA-Switchable hydrogel","volume":"3","author":"Liedl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"417","article-title":"Use of DNA nanodevices in modulating the mechanical properties of polyacrylamide gels","volume":"3892","author":"Carbone","year":"2006","journal-title":"Springer Berlin: Heidelberg, Germany"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15760","DOI":"10.1021\/ja805634x","article-title":"Smart Hydrogels Containing Adenylate Kinase: Translating Substrate Recognition into Macroscopic Motion","volume":"130","author":"Yuan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1038\/21619","article-title":"A reversibly antigen-responsive hydrogel","volume":"399","author":"Miyata","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2144","DOI":"10.1002\/polb.21812","article-title":"Structural Design of Stimuli-Responsive Bioconjugated Hydrogels That Respond to a Target Antigen","volume":"47","author":"Miyata","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1021\/ma981659g","article-title":"Preparation of an antigen-sensitive hydrogel using antigen-antibody bindings","volume":"32","author":"Miyata","year":"1999","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0506786103","article-title":"Tumor marker-responsive behavior of gels prepared by biomolecular imprinting","volume":"103","author":"Miyata","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8145","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200601849","article-title":"Imprinted photonic polymers for chiral recognition","volume":"45","author":"Hu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Angew. Chem., Int. Ed"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat2250","article-title":"Drug-sensing hydrogels for the inducible release of biopharmaceuticals","volume":"7","author":"Ehrbar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Mater"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1126\/science.505005","article-title":"Glucose-controlled insulin-delivery system - semi-synthetic insulin bound to lectin","volume":"206","author":"Brownlee","year":"1979","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(89)90102-6","article-title":"A self-regulating insulin delivery system. 2. In vivo characteristics of a synthetic glycosylated insulin","volume":"54","author":"Seminoff","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(89)90101-4","article-title":"A self-regulating insulin delivery system. 1. Characterization of a synthetic glycosylated insulin derivative","volume":"54","author":"Seminoff","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-3659(90)90104-2","article-title":"A microcapsule self-regulating delivery system for insulin","volume":"12","author":"Makino","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1352(199634\/12)9:5\/6<549::AID-JMR299>3.0.CO;2-C","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of sol-gel phase-reversible hydrogels sensitive to glucose","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Mol. Recognit"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016090103979","article-title":"Characterization of glucose dependent gel-sol phase transition of the polymeric glucose-concanavalin A hydrogel system","volume":"13","author":"Obaidat","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pharm. Res"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(96)00198-6","article-title":"Characterization of protein release through glucose-sensitive hydrogel membranes","volume":"18","author":"Obaidat","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1002\/macp.1996.021970330","article-title":"Preparation of poly(2-glucosyloxyethyl methacrylate)concanavalin A complex hydrogel and its glucose-sensitivity","volume":"197","author":"Miyata","year":"1996","journal-title":"Macromol. Chem. Phys"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2316","DOI":"10.1021\/ac030021m","article-title":"High ionic strength glucose-sensing photonic crystal","volume":"75","author":"Alexeev","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1039\/b901017n","article-title":"Photonic crystal borax competitive binding carbohydrate sensing motif","volume":"134","author":"Cui","year":"2009","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4978","DOI":"10.1021\/ac900006x","article-title":"Polymerized Crystalline Colloidal Array Sensing of High Glucose Concentrations","volume":"81","author":"Muscatello","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5149","DOI":"10.1021\/ac060643i","article-title":"Fast responsive crystalline colloidal array photonic crystal glucose sensors","volume":"78","author":"Alexeev","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2353","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2004.039701","article-title":"Photonic crystal glucose-sensing material for noninvasive monitoring of glucose in tear fluid","volume":"50","author":"Alexeev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Chem"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.10.014","article-title":"Glucose sensors based on a responsive gel incorporated as a Fabry-Perot cavity on a fiber-optic readout platform","volume":"24","author":"Tierney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3630","DOI":"10.1021\/ac900019k","article-title":"Determination of glucose levels using a functionalized hydrogel-optical fiber biosensor: toward continuous monitoring of blood glucose in vivo","volume":"81","author":"Tierney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerlach, G., and Arndt, K.F. (2009). Hydrogel Sensors and Actuators : Engineering and Technology, Springer-Verlag Berlin.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-75645-3"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-1669(96)80094-2","article-title":"Amperometric biosensors","volume":"7","author":"Heller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2006.09.018","article-title":"Electron-conducting redox hydrogels: design, characteristics and synthesis","volume":"10","author":"Heller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2930","DOI":"10.1021\/ac991041k","article-title":"Glucose and lactate biosensors based on redox polymer\/oxidoreductase nanocomposite thin films","volume":"72","author":"Sirkar","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200501612","article-title":"Hydrogels in Biology and Medicine: From Molecular Principles to Bionanotechnology","volume":"18","author":"Peppas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(90)80264-Z","article-title":"New microminiaturized glucose sensors using covalent immobilization techniques","volume":"1","author":"Mannbuxbaum","year":"1990","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(91)85005-H","article-title":"In vivo behaviour of hypodermically implanted microfabricated glucose sensors","volume":"6","author":"Koudelka","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2005.846173","article-title":"Design of a subcutaneous implantable biochip for monitoring of glucose and lactate","volume":"5","author":"Brahim","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2005.01.031","article-title":"Molecularly engineered p(HEMA)-based hydrogels for implant biochip biocompatibility","volume":"26","author":"Abraham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(94)01542-P","article-title":"Microfabricated conductimetric pH sensor","volume":"28","author":"Sheppard","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators, B"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(02)00089-1","article-title":"Bio-smart hydrogels: co-joined molecular recognition and signal transduction in biosensor fabrication and drug delivery","volume":"17","author":"Brahim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1039\/b204491a","article-title":"Selective sensing of triazine herbicides in imprinted membranes using ion-sensitive field-effect transistors and microgravimetric quartz crystal microbalance measurements","volume":"127","author":"Pogorelova","year":"2002","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0109873","article-title":"Imprinting of nucleotide and monosaccharide recognition sites in acrylamidephenylboronic acid-acrylamide copolymer membranes associated with electronic transducers","volume":"74","author":"Sallacan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(97)90075-1","article-title":"Design and development of a miniaturised total chemical analysis system for on-line lactate and glucose monitoring in biological samples","volume":"346","author":"Dempsey","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(01)00298-6","article-title":"Biosensor arrays for simultaneous measurement of glucose, lactate, glutamate, and glutamine","volume":"17","author":"Moser","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-008-9214-3","article-title":"Biomimetic hydrogels for biosensor implant biocompatibility: electrochemical characterization using micro-disc electrode arrays (MDEAs)","volume":"11","author":"Justin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.200804548","article-title":"Bioactive hydrogel layers on microdisk electrode arrays: cyclic voltammetry experiments and simulations","volume":"21","author":"Justin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2009.12.052","article-title":"Electroconductive hydrogels: synthesis, characterization and biomedical applications","volume":"31","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1039\/B814379J","article-title":"Dye displacement assay for saccharide detection with boronate hydrogels","volume":"5","author":"Ma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Commun"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2697(91)90424-R","article-title":"Immobilization of proteins to a carboxymethyldextran-modified gold surface for biospecific interaction analysis in surface-plasmon resonance sensors","volume":"198","author":"Johnsson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1038\/332615a0","article-title":"Surface-plasmon microscopy","volume":"332","author":"Rothenhausler","year":"1988","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1021\/bm801029b","article-title":"Gradient hydrogel matrix for microarray and biosensor applications: an imaging SPR study","volume":"10","author":"Andersson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1002\/marc.200800747","article-title":"Optical waveguide spectroscopy for the investigation of protein-functionalized hydrogel films","volume":"30","author":"Aulasevich","year":"2009","journal-title":"Macromol. Rapid Commun"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Hjelme, D.R., Berg, A., Ellingsen, R., Falch, B., Bjorkoy, A., and Ostling, D. (2003). Optical sensing of measurands. United States Patent, 20030112443."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-006-0453-y","article-title":"Progress toward the development of a point-of-care photonic crystal ammonia sensor","volume":"385","author":"Kimble","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.1021\/j100727a049","article-title":"Diffraction of light by ordered suspensions","volume":"73","author":"Hiltner","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.200700527","article-title":"Ultrasensitive specific stimulant assay based on molecularly imprinted photonic hydrogels","volume":"18","author":"Hu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4423","DOI":"10.1021\/ac020730k","article-title":"PH-sensitive holographic sensors","volume":"75","author":"Marshall","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1021\/ac030357w","article-title":"Metabolite-sensitive holographic biosensors","volume":"76","author":"Marshall","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5748","DOI":"10.1021\/ac049334n","article-title":"Glucose-sensitive holographic sensors for monitoring bacterial growth","volume":"76","author":"Lee","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7579","DOI":"10.1021\/ac9008989","article-title":"Holographic Enzyme Inhibition Assays for Drug Discovery","volume":"81","author":"Tan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200503102","article-title":"Label-free biosensing with hydrogel microlenses","volume":"45","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Angew. Chem., Int. Ed"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1021\/cm063086p","article-title":"Displacement-induced switching rates of bioresponsive hydrogel microlenses","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Mater"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05024","article-title":"Adaptive liquid microlenses activated by stimuli-responsive hydrogels","volume":"442","author":"Dong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2006.11.026","article-title":"Portable 24-analyte surface plasmon resonance instruments for rapid, versatile biodetection","volume":"22","author":"Chinowsky","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1021\/bm0255894","article-title":"Constant-volume hydrogel osmometer: A new device concept for miniature biosensors","volume":"3","author":"Han","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.11.001","article-title":"Free swelling and confined smart hydrogels for applications in chemomechanical sensors for physiological monitoring","volume":"136","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2746","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1773153","article-title":"Study of chemically induced pressure generation of hydrogels under isochoric conditions using a microfabricated device","volume":"121","author":"Herber","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.07.054","article-title":"Osmotic swelling pressure response of smart hydrogels suitable for chronically implantable glucose sensors","volume":"144","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-005-3026-5","article-title":"A miniaturized carbon dioxide gas sensor based on sensing of pH-sensitive hydrogel swelling with a pressure sensor","volume":"7","author":"Herber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biom. Microdev"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014627029818","article-title":"Hydrogel-actuated capacitive transducer for wireless biosensors","volume":"4","author":"Strong","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biom. Microdev"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2003.09.001","article-title":"Hard and soft micromachining for BioMEMS: review of techniques and examples of applications in microfluidics and drug delivery","volume":"56","author":"Ziaie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Delivery Rev"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2006.8.112","article-title":"A hydrogel-based implantable micromachined transponder for wireless glucose measurement","volume":"8","author":"Lei","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diab. Tech. Ther"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025786023595","article-title":"Ultrasensitive biomems sensors based on microcantilevers patterned with environmentally responsive hydrogels","volume":"5","author":"Hilt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biom. Microd"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2005.09.006","article-title":"Nanomechanical biosensors: a new sensing tool","volume":"25","author":"Carrascosa","year":"2006","journal-title":"TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.2116\/analsci.20.9","article-title":"Detection of Pb2+ using a hydrogel swelling microcantilever sensor","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Sci"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3091","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1514825","article-title":"Micromechanical cantilever as an ultrasensitive pH microsensor","volume":"81","author":"Bashir","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2007.513","article-title":"Integration of hydrogels with hard and soft microstructures","volume":"7","author":"Lei","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200701667","article-title":"Bimaterial microcantilevers as a hybrid sensing platform","volume":"20","author":"Singamaneni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Mater"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5796","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0106501","article-title":"Variations in coupled water, viscoelastic properties, and film thickness of a Mefp-1 protein film during adsorption and cross-linking: A quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring, ellipsometry, and surface plasmon resonance study","volume":"73","author":"Hook","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2009.05.029","article-title":"A biotin-hydrogel-coated quartz crystal microbalance biosensor and applications in immunoassay and peptide-displaying cell detection","volume":"392","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7292","DOI":"10.1021\/la050479e","article-title":"Hydrogels from a water-soluble zwitterionic polythiophene: Dynamics under pH change and biomolecular interactions observed using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring","volume":"21","author":"Asberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5966","DOI":"10.1021\/la0503294","article-title":"Real-time QCM-D immunoassay through oriented antibody immobilization using cross-linked hydrogel biointerfaces","volume":"21","author":"Carrigan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.11.002","article-title":"Sensor materials for the detection of proteases","volume":"24","author":"Stair","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.1021\/ac980674g","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted electrosynthesized polymers: New materials for biomimetic sensors","volume":"71","author":"Malitesta","year":"1999","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4403","DOI":"10.1021\/ma900919y","article-title":"Dependence of Photonic Crystal Nanocomposite Elasticity on Crystalline Colloidal Array Particle Size","volume":"42","author":"Muscatello","year":"2009","journal-title":"Macromolecules"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/5\/4381\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:02:19Z","timestamp":1760220139000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/5\/4381"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,30]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s100504381"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s100504381","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,30]]}}}