{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T13:54:50Z","timestamp":1776088490326,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,4]],"date-time":"2010-05-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1272931200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Blood glucose monitoring has been established as a valuable tool in the management of diabetes. Since maintaining normal blood glucose levels is recommended, a series of suitable glucose biosensors have been developed. During the last 50 years, glucose biosensor technology including point-of-care devices, continuous glucose monitoring systems and noninvasive glucose monitoring systems has been significantly improved. However, there continues to be several challenges related to the achievement of accurate and reliable glucose monitoring. Further technical improvements in glucose biosensors, standardization of the analytical goals for their performance, and continuously assessing and training lay users are required. This article reviews the brief history, basic principles, analytical performance, and the present status of glucose biosensors in the clinical practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s100504558","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,4]],"date-time":"2010-05-04T11:18:03Z","timestamp":1272971883000},"page":"4558-4576","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":964,"title":["Glucose Biosensors: An Overview of Use in Clinical Practice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Eun-Hyung","family":"Yoo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine, Konyang University Hospital, College of Medical Science, Konyang University, Daejon, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7595-4042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Soo-Youn","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine and Genetics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-1524","article-title":"Prevalence of diabetes and high risk for diabetes using hemoglobin A1c criteria in the U.S. population in 1988\u20132006","volume":"33","author":"Cowie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2114","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-1136","article-title":"Impact of recent increase in incidence on future diabetes burden: U.S., 2005\u20132050","volume":"29","author":"Narayan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.5.1047","article-title":"Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030","volume":"27","author":"Wild","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2009.10.007","article-title":"Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030","volume":"87","author":"Shaw","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2010). Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 33, S62\u201369.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-S062"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2009.0091","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the benefits of self-monitoring of blood glucose on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes patients: an update","volume":"11","author":"Poolsup","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.6.1759","article-title":"Intensified blood glucose monitoring improves glycemic control in stable, insulin-treated veterans with type 2 diabetes: the Diabetes Outcomes in Veterans Study (DOVES)","volume":"26","author":"Murata","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300109","article-title":"Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Type 1 Diabetes Patients with Insufficient Metabolic Control: Focused Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Intervention Can Lower Glycated Hemoglobin A1C","volume":"3","author":"Skeie","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1185\/03007990903400071","article-title":"Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) for type 2 diabetes patients treated with oral anti-diabetes drugs and with a recent history of monitoring: cost-effectiveness in the US","volume":"26","author":"Tunis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S205","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-S312","article-title":"Self-monitoring of blood glucose as part of the integral care of type 2 diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Boutati","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.4158\/EP.14.2.239","article-title":"Using meal-based self-monitoring of blood glucose as a tool to improve outcomes in pregnancy complicated by diabetes","volume":"14","author":"Jovanovic","year":"2008","journal-title":"Endocr. Pract"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1258\/acb.2009.009011","article-title":"Self-monitoring of blood glucose in diabetes: is it worth it?","volume":"46","author":"Pickup","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1993). The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med, 329, 977\u2013986.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199309303291401"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0806470","article-title":"10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes","volume":"359","author":"Holman","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.321.7258.405","article-title":"Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study","volume":"321","author":"Stratton","year":"2000","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2010). Standards of medical care in diabetes--2010. Diabetes Care, 33, S11\u201361.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-S011"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.11.012","article-title":"Home blood glucose biosensors: a commercial perspective","volume":"20","author":"Newman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1126\/science.290.5495.1315","article-title":"Biosensors--sense and sensitivity","volume":"290","author":"Turner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x","article-title":"Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery","volume":"102","author":"Clark","year":"1962","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1038\/214986a0","article-title":"The enzyme electrode","volume":"214","author":"Updike","year":"1967","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.2116\/analsci.24.483","article-title":"Amperometric biosensor based on glucose dehydrogenase and plasma-polymerized thin films","volume":"24","author":"Hiratsuka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Sci"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Biosensor recognition elements","volume":"10","author":"Chambers","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(00)00108-1","article-title":"A review of molecular recognition technologies for detection of biological threat agents","volume":"15","author":"Iqbal","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Newman, J.D., and Turner, A.P. (1992). Biosensors: Principles and practice, Portland Press."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1007\/s002160051551","article-title":"Electron-transfer mechanisms in amperometric biosensors","volume":"366","author":"Habermuller","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fresenius J. Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1258\/0004563001899131","article-title":"Analytical aspects of biosensors","volume":"37","author":"Pearson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"121","article-title":"Electrochemical biosensors: recommended definitions and classification","volume":"16","author":"Thevenot","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/45.9.1596","article-title":"In vitro diagnostics in diabetes: meeting the challenge","volume":"45","author":"Turner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Chem"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-1669(96)80094-2","article-title":"Amperometric biosensors","volume":"7","author":"Heller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1515\/CCLM.2003.185","article-title":"Point-of-care testing in diabetes mellitus","volume":"41","author":"Price","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/0265-928X(86)80011-6","article-title":"Quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase and its application in an amperometric glucose sensor","volume":"2","author":"Higgins","year":"1986","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Slein, M.W. (1963). D-glucose: Determination with hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2482","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068069y","article-title":"Electrochemical glucose sensors and their applications in diabetes management","volume":"108","author":"Heller","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2009.04.003","article-title":"Glucose oxidase--an overview","volume":"27","author":"Bankar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2734","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)62246-X","article-title":"The glucose oxidase mechanism. Interpretation of the pH dependence","volume":"246","author":"Weibel","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(01)82476-4","article-title":"An enzyme electrode for the amperometric determination of glucose","volume":"64","author":"Guilbault","year":"1973","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1207","article-title":"PQQ as redox shuttle for quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase","volume":"379","author":"Jin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12400","DOI":"10.1021\/ja052841h","article-title":"Reconstitution of apo-glucose dehydrogenase on pyrroloquinoline quinone-functionalized au nanoparticles yields an electrically contacted biocatalyst","volume":"127","author":"Zayats","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raitman, O.A., Patolsky, F., Katz, E., and Willner, I. (2002). Electrical contacting of glucose dehydrogenase by the reconstitution of a pyrroloquinoline quinone-functionalized polyaniline film associated with an Au-electrode: an in situ electrochemical SPR study. Chem. Commun. (Camb.), 1936\u20131937.","DOI":"10.1039\/b205393d"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/0265-928X(87)80018-4","article-title":"Strategies for the development of amperometric enzyme electrodes","volume":"3","author":"Bartlett","year":"1987","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-5394(02)00047-6","article-title":"Modified electrodes for NADH oxidation and dehydrogenase-based biosensors","volume":"56","author":"Bartlett","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"371","article-title":"Electrocatalytic oxidation of NAD(P) H at mediator-modified electrodes","volume":"82","author":"Gorton","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"52","article-title":"DEXTROSTIX--A RAPID METHOD OF ESTIMATING BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS","volume":"56","author":"Drury","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Ir. Med. Assoc"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"709","article-title":"Clinical tests with the dextrostix. A new method for rapid blood sugar determination","volume":"127","author":"Jensen","year":"1965","journal-title":"Ugeskr. Laeger"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"435","article-title":"A NEW RAPID BLOOD-SUGAR DETERMINATION AT BEDSIDE (DEXTROSTIX)","volume":"115","author":"Korp","year":"1965","journal-title":"Wien. Med. Wochenschr"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"706","article-title":"Blood sugar determination using the dextrostix","volume":"127","author":"Schmidt","year":"1965","journal-title":"Ugesk. Laeger"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1126\/science.158.3798.270","article-title":"Reagentless substrate analysis with immobilized enzymes","volume":"158","author":"Updike","year":"1967","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068123a","article-title":"Electrochemical glucose biosensors","volume":"108","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"55","article-title":"Improved design for the glucose biosensor","volume":"39","author":"Liu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Food technology and biotechnology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00268a018","article-title":"Ferrocene-mediated enzyme electrode for amperometric determination of glucose","volume":"56","author":"Cass","year":"1984","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933A","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00142a720","article-title":"Electrochemical biosensors","volume":"59","author":"Frew","year":"1987","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(82)92788-X","article-title":"Wearable artificial endocrine pancrease with needle-type glucose sensor","volume":"2","author":"Shichiri","year":"1982","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(01)00313-X","article-title":"Mediated biosensors","volume":"17","author":"Chaubey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1987.0020","article-title":"Electron-transfer biosensors","volume":"316","author":"Frew","year":"1987","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2006.05.034","article-title":"Enzyme electrodes based on sono-gel containing ferrocenyl compounds","volume":"22","author":"Ballarin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00297a050","article-title":"Homogeneous ferrocene-mediated amperometric immunoassay","volume":"58","author":"Hill","year":"1986","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1021\/ac60283a032","article-title":"Electrochemical-enzymatic analysis of blood glucose and lactate","volume":"42","author":"Williams","year":"1970","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.08.051","article-title":"The evolution of commercialized glucose sensors in China","volume":"24","author":"Hu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1039\/an9911601217","article-title":"Disposable electrochemical biosensors","volume":"116","author":"Hilditch","year":"1991","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(87)92802-9","article-title":"Pen-sized digital 30-second blood glucose meter","volume":"1","author":"Matthews","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"379A","article-title":"Chemically modified electrodes. Molecular design for electroanalysis","volume":"59","author":"Murray","year":"1987","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.2116\/analsci.20.603","article-title":"Third-generation biosensors based on the direct electron transfer of proteins","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Sci"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00202a007","article-title":"Cross-linked redox gels containing glucose oxidase for amperometric biosensor applications","volume":"62","author":"Gregg","year":"1990","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.2741\/1545","article-title":"Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for the development of electrochemical biosensors","volume":"10","author":"Lin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Front. Biosci"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1038\/376672a0","article-title":"Improving enzyme-electrode contacts by redox modification of cofactors","volume":"376","author":"Riklin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2939","DOI":"10.1021\/ac9510393","article-title":"Design of a stable charge transfer complex electrode for a third-generation amperometric glucose sensor","volume":"68","author":"Khan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5913","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0258608","article-title":"A disposable, reagentless, third-generation glucose biosensor based on overoxidized poly(pyrrole)\/tetrathiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane composite","volume":"74","author":"Palmisano","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S1387-2656(03)09003-3","article-title":"Horseradish peroxidase: a valuable tool in biotechnology","volume":"9","author":"Azevedo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Annu. Rev"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.05.018","article-title":"Design of an amperometric biosensor using polypyrrole-microgel composites containing glucose oxidase","volume":"20","author":"Mecerreyes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(97)00116-4","article-title":"Electropolymerization of pyrrole and immobilization of glucose oxidase in a flow system: influence of the operating conditions on analytical performance","volume":"13","author":"Vidal","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-006-0534-y","article-title":"Mediator-free amperometric determination of glucose based on direct electron transfer between glucose oxidase and an oxidized boron-doped diamond electrode","volume":"385","author":"Wu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.23.5.397","article-title":"Clinical control of diabetes by the artificial pancreas","volume":"23","author":"Albisser","year":"1974","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1692","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00017a008","article-title":"Design and in vitro studies of a needle-type glucose sensor for subcutaneous monitoring","volume":"63","author":"Bindra","year":"1991","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00103a015","article-title":"Design and optimization of a selective subcutaneously implantable glucose electrode based on \u201cwired\u201d glucose oxidase","volume":"67","author":"Csoregi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594A","DOI":"10.1021\/ac981937+","article-title":"Getting under the skin: implantable glucose sensors","volume":"70","author":"Henry","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.1.294","article-title":"Measurement and modeling of the transient difference between blood and subcutaneous glucose concentrations in the rat after injection of insulin","volume":"95","author":"Schmidtke","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1089\/15209150050194332","article-title":"Can interstitial glucose assessment replace blood glucose measurements?","volume":"2","author":"Rebrin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1089\/152091500316737","article-title":"Performance evaluation of the MiniMed continuous glucose monitoring system during patient home use","volume":"2","author":"Gross","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedhc.2009.06.002","article-title":"An overview of continuous glucose monitoring systems","volume":"23","author":"Cox","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.17.5.387","article-title":"Development of a miniaturized glucose monitoring system by combining a needle-type glucose sensor with microdialysis sampling method. Long-term subcutaneous tissue glucose monitoring in ambulatory diabetic patients","volume":"17","author":"Hashiguchi","year":"1994","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(02)00216-6","article-title":"A microdialysis technique for continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients (part 1)","volume":"18","author":"Poscia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2871","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.28.12.2871","article-title":"Comparison of a needle-type and a microdialysis continuous glucose monitor in type 1 diabetic patients","volume":"28","author":"Wentholt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2009.02750.x","article-title":"Glucose monitoring by microdialysis: performance in a multicentre study","volume":"26","author":"Nielsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabet. Med"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0805017","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring and intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes","volume":"359","author":"Tamborlane","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-0846","article-title":"Sustained benefit of continuous glucose monitoring on A1C, glucose profiles, and hypoglycemia in adults with type 1 diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Bode","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Continuous Glucose Monitoring Study Group (2009). The effect of continuous glucose monitoring in well-controlled type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 32, 1378\u20131383.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-0108"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc082243","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring and type 1 diabetes","volume":"360","author":"Montagnana","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.20.3.433","article-title":"Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring","volume":"20","author":"Klonoff","year":"1997","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2008.02642.x","article-title":"Glucose sensors: a review of current and emerging technology","volume":"26","author":"Oliver","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabet. Med"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.5.3.254","article-title":"Noninvasive glucose monitoring of the aqueous humor of the eye: Part I. Measurement of very small optical rotations","volume":"5","author":"Rabinovitch","year":"1982","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1109\/10.391172","article-title":"Application of a multivariate technique to Raman spectra for quantification of body chemicals","volume":"42","author":"Goetz","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.22.12.2026","article-title":"Transcutaneous glucose measurement using near-infrared spectroscopy during hypoglycemia","volume":"22","author":"Gabriely","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/45.9.1587","article-title":"Advances in photoacoustic noninvasive glucose testing","volume":"45","author":"MacKenzie","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Chem"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2263","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.12.2263","article-title":"Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring with optical coherence tomography: a pilot study in human subjects","volume":"25","author":"Larin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"1486","article-title":"Approved IFCC recommendation on reporting results for blood glucose: International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine Scientific Division, Working Group on Selective Electrodes and Point-of-Care Testing (IFCC-SD-WG-SEPOCT)","volume":"44","author":"Burnett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2009.01.002","article-title":"Overview on self-monitoring of blood glucose","volume":"402","author":"Montagnana","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.7.1761","article-title":"Tests of glycemia in diabetes","volume":"27","author":"Goldstein","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (1996). American Diabetes Association: clinical practice recommendations 1996. Diabetes Care, 19, S1\u2013118."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (2003). In vitro diagnostic test systems-Requirements for blood-glucose monitoring systems for self-testing in managing diabetes mellitus, International Organization for Standardization."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2003). Evaluation of the linearity of quantitative measurement procedures; A statistical approach; Approved guideline, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2005). Interference testing in clinical chemistry; Approved guideline, Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100207","article-title":"Measurement quality of blood glucose meters: is there a need for an institution with an unbiased view?","volume":"1","author":"Heinemann","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.11.2.116","article-title":"Effect of hematocrit concentration on blood glucose value determined on Glucometer II","volume":"11","author":"Barreau","year":"1988","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cccn.2005.01.027","article-title":"Accuracy evaluation of a new glucometer with automated hematocrit measurement and correction","volume":"356","author":"Rao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.5858\/2000-124-1135-EODHLO","article-title":"Effects of different hematocrit levels on glucose measurements with handheld meters for point-of-care testing","volume":"124","author":"Tang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2690","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00067a024","article-title":"Ascorbic acid interferences in hydrogen peroxide detecting biosensors based on electrochemically immobilized enzymes","volume":"65","author":"Palmisano","year":"1993","journal-title":"Analytical chemistry"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.1140060811","article-title":"Effect of interference on amperometric glucose biosensors with cellulose acetate membrane","volume":"6","author":"Vaidya","year":"2005","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1592\/phco.27.9.1313","article-title":"Interference of maltose, icodextrin, galactose, or xylose with some blood glucose monitoring systems","volume":"27","author":"Schleis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1177\/089686080902900403","article-title":"Analytical interferences in point-of-care testing glucometers by icodextrin and its metabolites: an overview","volume":"29","author":"Flore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Perit. Dial. Int"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/44.11.2379","article-title":"Positive interference of icodextrin metabolites in some enzymatic glucose methods","volume":"44","author":"Janssen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Chem"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-5491.2002.00753.x","article-title":"Blood glucose overestimation in diabetic patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis for end-stage renal disease","volume":"19","author":"Oyibo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabet. Med"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1309\/QAW1-X5XW-BVRQ-5LKQ","article-title":"Effects of drugs on glucose measurements with handheld glucose meters and a portable glucose analyzer","volume":"113","author":"Tang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/44.4.893","article-title":"Toxic levels of acetaminophen produce a major positive interference on Glucometer Elite and Accu-chek Advantage glucose meters","volume":"44","author":"Cartier","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Chem"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-8981(03)00079-2","article-title":"Analytical performance of glucometers used for routine glucose self-monitoring of diabetic patients","volume":"331","author":"Solnica","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100202","article-title":"Approaches for improving glucose monitor measurements for self-monitoring of blood glucose: from measurement harmonization to external quality assessment programs","volume":"1","author":"Vesper","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/5\/4558\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:02:20Z","timestamp":1760220140000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/5\/4558"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,4]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s100504558"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s100504558","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,4]]}}}