{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T13:19:21Z","timestamp":1774444761595,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":143,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,15]],"date-time":"2010-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1287100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The presence and concentration of oxygen in biological systems has a large impact on the behavior and viability of many types of cells, including the differentiation of stem cells or the growth of tumor cells. As a result, the integration of oxygen sensors within cell culture environments presents a powerful tool for quantifying the effects of oxygen concentrations on cell behavior, cell viability, and drug effectiveness. Because microfluidic cell culture environments are a promising alternative to traditional cell culture platforms, there is recent interest in integrating oxygen-sensing mechanisms with microfluidics for cell culture applications. Optical, luminescence-based oxygen sensors, in particular, show great promise in their ability to be integrated with microfluidics and cell culture systems. These sensors can be highly sensitive and do not consume oxygen or generate toxic byproducts in their sensing process. This paper presents a review of previously proposed optical oxygen sensor types, materials and formats most applicable to microfluidic cell culture, and analyzes their suitability for this and other in vitro applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s101009286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,15]],"date-time":"2010-10-15T10:51:19Z","timestamp":1287139879000},"page":"9286-9316","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":146,"title":["Optical Oxygen Sensors for Applications in Microfluidic Cell Culture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Samantha M.","family":"Grist","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia\/2332 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}]},{"given":"Lukas","family":"Chrostowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia\/2332 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}]},{"given":"Karen C.","family":"Cheung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia\/2332 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1996.76.3.839","article-title":"Oxygen sensing and molecular adaptation to hypoxia","volume":"76","author":"Bunn","year":"1996","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.21690","article-title":"Hypoxia or in situ normoxia: The stem cell paradigm","volume":"219","author":"Ivanovic","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.86.8.824","article-title":"Making sense out of oxygen sensor","volume":"86","author":"Goligorsky","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circ. Res"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2000.88.4.1467","article-title":"Historical perspectives of cellular oxygen sensing and responses to hypoxia","volume":"88","author":"Lahiri","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/93.4.266","article-title":"Tumor hypoxia: definitions and current clinical, biologic, and molecular aspects","volume":"93","author":"Hockel","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nat. Cancer Inst"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc704","article-title":"Hypoxia\u2014a key regulatory factor in tumour growth","volume":"2","author":"Harris","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1080\/09553000601002324","article-title":"Hypoxia: Importance in tumor biology, noninvasive measurement by imaging, and value of its measurement in the management of cancer therapy","volume":"82","author":"Arbeit","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Radiat. Biol"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1334.001","article-title":"Oxygen in the cultivation of stem cells","volume":"1049","author":"Csete","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2354","article-title":"The role of oxygen availability in embryonic development and stem cell function","volume":"9","author":"Simon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Bio"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.21812","article-title":"The role of oxygen in regulating neural stem cells in development and disease","volume":"220","author":"Panchision","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(98)00171-3","article-title":"Biosensors on the basis of luminescent oxygen sensor: The use of microporous light-scattering support materials","volume":"51","author":"Papkovsky","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B Chem"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1042\/bst0280074","article-title":"Phosphorescent porphyrin probes in biosensors and sensitive bioassays","volume":"28","author":"Papkovsky","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.08.020","article-title":"Encapsulation of glucose oxidase and an oxygen-quenched fluorophore in polyelectrolyte-coated calcium alginate microspheres as optical glucose sensor systems","volume":"21","author":"Brown","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2004.830952","article-title":"Sensor technologies for monitoring metabolic activity in single cells - Part I: Optical, methods","volume":"4","author":"Yotter","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.4.112601.125916","article-title":"Physics and applications of microfluidics in biology","volume":"4","author":"Beebe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05058","article-title":"The origins and the future of microfluidics","volume":"442","author":"Whitesides","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-007-1692-2","article-title":"Polymer microfabrication technologies for microfluidic systems","volume":"390","author":"Becker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1985","article-title":"Lab-on-a-chip: Microfluidics in drug discovery","volume":"5","author":"Dittrich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(03)00266-1","article-title":"Microfluidic devices for cellomics: A review","volume":"92","author":"Andersson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2005.12.037","article-title":"Microfluidics technology for manipulation and analysis of biological cells","volume":"560","author":"Yi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal.Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05063","article-title":"Cells on chips","volume":"442","author":"Sorger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1039\/B711887B","article-title":"Biomolecular gradients in cell culture systems","volume":"8","author":"Keenan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anchem.1.031207.113042","article-title":"Cell culture models in microfluidic systems","volume":"1","author":"Meyvantsson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4848","DOI":"10.1021\/ac1009707","article-title":"Latest developments in microfluidic cell biology and analysis systems","volume":"82","author":"Simone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2003.09.019","article-title":"Integrated microfluidic devices","volume":"507","author":"Erickson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal.Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R15","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/17\/5\/R01","article-title":"Lab-on-chip technologies: Making a microfluidic network and coupling it into a complete microsystem\u2014A review","volume":"17","author":"Abgrall","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Microme. Microen"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jala.2009.10.002","article-title":"Automated high-throughput microchannel assays for cell biology: Operational optimization and characterization","volume":"15","author":"Puccinelli","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Lab. Autom"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1366\/0003702001949726","article-title":"Luminescence lifetime imaging of oxygen, pH, and carbon dioxide distribution using optical sensors","volume":"54","author":"Liebsch","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.21793","article-title":"Multiplex bacterial growth monitoring in 24-well microplates using a dual optical sensor for dissolved oxygen and pH","volume":"100","author":"Kocincova","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4354","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0100852","article-title":"Fluorescent imaging of pH with optical sensors using time domain dual lifetime referencing","volume":"73","author":"Liebsch","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/17\/7\/008","article-title":"A microfluidic system for automatic cell culture","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Microme. Microen"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(99)00356-8","article-title":"Precise temperature control of microfluidic chamber for gas and liquid phase reactions","volume":"84","author":"Lao","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. A-Phys"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x","article-title":"Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery","volume":"102","author":"Clark","year":"1962","journal-title":"Ann. N. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.02.014","article-title":"Fabrication of miniature Clark oxygen sensor integrated with microstructure","volume":"110","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.2154","article-title":"Techniques for oxygen transfer measurement in bioreactors: a review","volume":"84","author":"Suresh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-002-0786-9","article-title":"Oxygen microoptodes: a new tool for oxygen measurements in aquatic animal ecology","volume":"140","author":"Gatti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Marine Biol"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1595\/003214097X413115127","article-title":"Optical oxygen sensors","volume":"41","author":"Mills","year":"1997","journal-title":"Platinum Met. Rev"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(97)80179-7","article-title":"Oxygen flux fluorescence lifetime imaging","volume":"38","author":"Hartmann","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2913","DOI":"10.1039\/b502981c","article-title":"Ratiometric fiber optic sensors for the detection of inter- and intra-cellular dissolved oxygen","volume":"15","author":"Park","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"183","article-title":"The fading time of fluorescence","volume":"20","author":"Stern","year":"1919","journal-title":"Phys. Z"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marchem.2005.05.003","article-title":"Fabrication and test of sol-gel based planar oxygen optodes for use in aquatic sediments","volume":"97","author":"Konig","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mar Chem"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1038\/218396a0","article-title":"Rapid-response atmospheric oxygen monitor based on fluorescence quenching","volume":"218","author":"Bergman","year":"1968","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mycek, MA, and Pogue, BW (2003). Handbook of Biomedical Fluorescence, Marcel Dekker.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203912096"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-003-0037-x","article-title":"Probes and polymers for optical sensing of oxygen","volume":"143","author":"Amao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068102g","article-title":"Optical chemical sensors","volume":"108","author":"McDonagh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(98)00232-9","article-title":"A modular luminescence lifetime imaging system for mapping oxygen distribution in biological samples","volume":"51","author":"Holst","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H2068","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.1994.267.5.H2068","article-title":"In-Vivo visualization of oxygen-transport in microvascular network","volume":"36","author":"Itoh","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol-Heart C"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1039\/b801879k","article-title":"Patterning, integration and characterisation of polymer optical oxygen sensors for microfluidic devices","volume":"8","author":"Nock","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3420417","article-title":"Imaging of phosphorescence\u2014A novel method for measuring oxygen distribution in perfused tissue","volume":"241","author":"Rumsey","year":"1988","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.02.045","article-title":"Spin-assembled nanofilms for gaseous oxygen sensing","volume":"120","author":"Badardeen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2498","DOI":"10.1021\/ac035493f","article-title":"Real-time measurements of dissolved oxygen inside live cells by organically modified silicate fluorescent nanosensors","volume":"76","author":"Koo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2946","DOI":"10.1039\/b501748c","article-title":"Phosphorescent oxygen-sensitive materials for biological applications","volume":"15","author":"Hynes","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1039\/B806907G","article-title":"In-situ measurement of cellular microenvironments in a microfluidic device","volume":"9","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam, RHW, Kim, M-C, and Thorsen, T (2007, January June). A microfluidic oxygenator for biological cell culture. Lyon, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/SENSOR.2007.4300676"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5918","DOI":"10.1021\/ac9006864","article-title":"Culturing aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and mammalian cells with a microfluidic differential oxygenator","volume":"81","author":"Lam","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1039\/b403086a","article-title":"Poly(decyl methacrylate)-based fluorescent PEBBLE swarm nanosensors for measuring dissolved oxygen in biosamples","volume":"129","author":"Cao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-008-0047-9","article-title":"Luminescent nanobeads for optical sensing and imaging of dissolved oxygen","volume":"164","author":"Borisov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5456","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.14.005456","article-title":"The application of frequency-domain Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy as a quantitative analytical tool for microfluidic devices","volume":"14","author":"Elder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(97)80181-5","article-title":"A microoptode array for fine-scale measurement of oxygen distribution","volume":"38","author":"Holst","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(97)80168-2","article-title":"Optical measurement of oxygen and temperature in microscale: strategies and biological applications","volume":"38","author":"Klimant","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4112","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00118a013","article-title":"Phosphorescent complexes of porphyrin ketones: Optical properties and application to oxygen sensing","volume":"67","author":"Papkovsky","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.10352","article-title":"Determination of oxygen gradients in engineered tissue using a fluorescent sensor","volume":"80","author":"Kellner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00715-2","article-title":"Luminescence lifetime imaging with transparent oxygen optodes","volume":"74","author":"Holst","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B: Chem"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-003-1152-4","article-title":"A UV-visible-NIR fluorescence lifetime imaging microscope for laser-based biological sensing with picosecond resolution","volume":"76","author":"Urayama","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B-Lasers O"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1366\/0003702914337182","article-title":"A 2-dimensional fluorescence lifetime imaging-system using a gated image intensifier","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/36\/14\/306","article-title":"Imaging fluorescence lifetime modulation of a ruthenium-based dye in living cells: the potential for oxygen sensing","volume":"36","author":"Zhong","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(91)82175-0","article-title":"Time resolved imaging microscopy\u2014phosphorescence and delayed fluorescence imaging","volume":"60","author":"Marriott","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biophys. J"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6275","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.13.006275","article-title":"Time-resolved fluorescence imaging of solvent interactions in microfluidic devices","volume":"13","author":"Benninger","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3711","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.31.003711","article-title":"Oxygen distribution in the retinal and choroidal vessels of the cat as measured by a new phosphorescence imaging method","volume":"31","author":"Shonat","year":"1992","journal-title":"Appl. Opti"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4412","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.14.004412","article-title":"Time-resolved optical imaging provides a molecular snapshot of altered metabolic function in living human cancer cell models","volume":"14","author":"Sud","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-006-9005-7","article-title":"Quantitative measurement and control of oxygen levels in microfluidic poly(dimethylsiloxane) bioreactors during cell culture","volume":"9","author":"Mehta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6289","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01574-07","article-title":"Combined imaging of bacteria and oxygen in biofilms","volume":"73","author":"Kuhl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microb"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1142413","article-title":"Lifetime-selective fluorescence imaging using an Rf phase-sensitive camera","volume":"62","author":"Lakowicz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(00)82310-7","article-title":"Fibre-optic oxygen sensor with the fluorescence decay time as the information carrier","volume":"205","author":"Lippitsch","year":"1988","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2697(92)90345-8","article-title":"Electroluminescent lamp-based phase fluorometer and oxygen sensor","volume":"201","author":"Berndt","year":"1992","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(97)80120-7","article-title":"Miniaturized luminescence lifetime-based oxygen sensor instrumentation utilizing a phase modulation technique","volume":"36","author":"Trettnak","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2009.2022504","article-title":"Sensitivity-Enhanced CMOS Phase Luminometry System Using Xerogel-Based Sensors","volume":"3","author":"Yao","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuit. Syst"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1039\/b508097e","article-title":"Development of an integrated microfluidic platform for dynamic oxygen sensing and delivery in a flowing medium","volume":"5","author":"Vollmer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1039\/b504243g","article-title":"Development of a multiplexed microbioreactor system for high-throughput bioprocessing","volume":"5","author":"Szita","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.20140","article-title":"Membrane-aerated microbioreactor for high-throughput bioprocessing","volume":"87","author":"Zanzotto","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1021\/bp034077d","article-title":"The design and fabrication of three-chamber microscale cell culture analog devices with integrated dissolved oxygen sensors","volume":"20","author":"Sin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biotech. Pro"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1177\/27.1.220325","article-title":"Autofluorescence of viable cultured mammalian-cells","volume":"27","author":"Aubin","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Histochem. Cytochem"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5476","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)45596-2","article-title":"An optical method for measurement of dioxygen concentration based upon quenching of phosphorescence","volume":"262","author":"Vanderkooi","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1007\/s10895-005-2830-x","article-title":"Emerging applications of phosphorescent metalloporphyrins","volume":"15","author":"Papkovsky","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Fluoresc"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2780","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00150a012","article-title":"Determination of oxygen concentrations by luminescence quenching of a polymer-immobilized transition-metal complex","volume":"59","author":"Bacon","year":"1987","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1995.40.6.1159","article-title":"Fiber-optic oxygen microsensors, a new tool in aquatic biology","volume":"40","author":"Klimant","year":"1995","journal-title":"Limnol Oceanogr"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s006040050007","article-title":"Fast response oxygen micro-optodes based on novel soluble ormosil glasses","volume":"131","author":"Klimant","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mikrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00721-8","article-title":"Phase fluorometric dissolved oxygen sensor","volume":"74","author":"McDonagh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13349","DOI":"10.1021\/jp036245q","article-title":"Characterizing the quenching process for phosphorescent dyes in poly[((n-butylamino)thionyl)phosphazene] films","volume":"107","author":"Lu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2004.08.075","article-title":"Study of migration of active components of phosphorescent oxygen sensors for food packaging applications","volume":"530","author":"Voraberger","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1080\/10739680591003314","article-title":"In vivo phosphorescence imaging of pO2 using planar oxygen sensors","volume":"12","author":"Babilas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3160","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00114a010","article-title":"Oxygen-sensitive luminescent materials based on silicone-soluble ruthenium diimine complexes","volume":"67","author":"Klimant","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.2011069","article-title":"Photopatternable polymeric membranes for optical oxygen sensors","volume":"9","author":"Ambekar","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1039\/b305358j","article-title":"An integrated optical oxygen sensor fabricated using rapid-prototyping techniques","volume":"3","author":"Gale","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0505041","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2355665","article-title":"Optical imaging in microfluidic bioreactors enables oxygen monitoring for continuous cell culture","volume":"11","author":"Sud","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02436971","article-title":"The photophysical properties of ruthenium polypyridyl complexes within a sol-gel matrix","volume":"8","author":"Mongey","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Sol-Gel. Sci. Techn"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2852(70)90179-7","article-title":"Porphyrins : XVIII. Luminescence of (Co), (Ni), Pd, Pt complexes","volume":"35","author":"Eastwood","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Mol. Spectrosc"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(92)87016-I","article-title":"Phosphorescent polymer-films for optical oxygen sensors","volume":"7","author":"Papkovsky","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1016\/0584-8539(96)01731-X","article-title":"Longwave luminescent porphyrin probes","volume":"52","author":"Papkovsky","year":"1996","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta A"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Nicolau, DV, Abbott, D, KalantarZadeh, K, DiMatteo, T, and Bezrukov, SM (2008). Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE), BIOMEMS and Nanotechnology III, Optical Engineering. SPIE: Australian Natl Univ; COSNet ARC; CUDOS; RPO; Bandwidth Foundry; SPIE-Int. Soc."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2712","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)69126-4","article-title":"The oxygen dependence of mitochondrial oxidative-phosphorylation measured by a new optical method for measuring oxygen concentration","volume":"263","author":"Wilson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"H1434","article-title":"Microvessel Po2 Measurements by phosphorescence decay method","volume":"265","author":"Intaglietta","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"3988","article-title":"Localization of tumors and evaluation of their state of oxygenation by phosphorescence imaging","volume":"52","author":"Wilson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1997.82.6.1939","article-title":"Intravascular oxygen distribution in subcutaneous 9L tumors and radiation sensitivity","volume":"82","author":"Cerniglia","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"389","article-title":"Interstitial PO(2) determination by phosphorescence quenching microscopy","volume":"9","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1996.0144","article-title":"Calibration of oxygen-dependent quenching of the phosphorescence of Pd-meso-tetra (4-carboxyphenyl) porphine: A phosphor with general application for measuring oxygen concentration in biological systems","volume":"236","author":"Lo","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8547","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.45.008547","article-title":"Tomographic imaging of oxygen by phosphorescence lifetime","volume":"45","author":"Apreleva","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Opt"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/0-387-29540-2_19","article-title":"Imaging oxygen pressure in the rodent retina by phosphorescence lifetime","volume":"578","author":"Wilson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2697(02)00384-6","article-title":"Oxyphor R2 and G2: Phosphors for measuring oxygen by oxygen-dependent quenching of phosphorescence","volume":"310","author":"Dunphy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01315.2005","article-title":"Dual-wavelength phosphorimetry for determination of cortical and subcortical microvascular oxygenation in rat kidney","volume":"100","author":"Johannes","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0b013e31817c02a5","article-title":"Nonresuscitated Endotoxemia Induces microcirculatory hypoxic areas in the renal cortex in the rat","volume":"31","author":"Johannes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"F676","article-title":"Monitoring of renal venous Po-2 and kidney oxygen consumption in rats by a near-infrared phosphorescence lifetime technique","volume":"294","author":"Mik","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Phy.-Ren"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00694.2004","article-title":"Exercise training prevents the inflammatory response to hypoxia in cremaster venules","volume":"98","author":"Orth","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4393","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01318","article-title":"Crater landscape: Two-dimensional oxygen gradients in the circulatory system of the microcrustacean Daphnia magna","volume":"207","author":"Pirow","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/10739680490437487","article-title":"Measurement of muscle microvascular oxygen pressures: Compartmentalization of phosphorescent probe","volume":"11","author":"Poole","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4863-8_71","article-title":"Oxygen distributions within R3230Ac tumors growing in dorsal flap window chambers in rats","volume":"454","author":"Wilson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol"},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"53","article-title":"Oxygen pressures in the interstitial space of skeletal muscle and tumors in vivo","volume":"614","author":"Wilson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oxygen Transp. Tiss"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00394.2006","article-title":"Oxygen pressures in the interstitial space and their relationship to those in the blood plasma in resting skeletal muscle","volume":"101","author":"Wilson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S1095-6433(01)00542-6","article-title":"Measurement of tumor oxygenation using new frequency domain phosphorometers","volume":"132","author":"Wilson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Com. Biochem. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01140.2004","article-title":"Oxygen distribution in murine tumors: characterization using oxygen-dependent quenching of phosphorescence","volume":"98","author":"Ziemer","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22341","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.17.022341","article-title":"Optical monitoring of oxygen tension in cortical microvessels with confocal microscopy","volume":"17","author":"Yaseen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S1011-1344(01)00257-3","article-title":"Interaction of oxygen-sensitive luminescent probes Ru(phen)(3)(2+) and Ru(bipy)(3)(2+) with animal and plant cells in vitro\u2014Mechanism of phototoxicity and conditions for non-invasive oxygen measurements","volume":"65","author":"Dobrucki","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Photoch. Photobio. B"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00486300","article-title":"Ruthenium-doped sol-gel derived silica films: Oxygen sensitivity of optical decay times","volume":"2","author":"Kiernan","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Sol-Gel Sci. Tech"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(93)85267-E","article-title":"Luminescent porphyrins as probes for optical (Bio)sensors","volume":"11","author":"Papkovsky","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2615","DOI":"10.1021\/ac960008k","article-title":"Effects of polymer matrices on calibration functions of luminescent oxygen sensors based on porphyrin ketone complexes","volume":"68","author":"Hartmann","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008615932732","article-title":"Optimization of Ormosil films for optical sensor applications","volume":"13","author":"Lavin","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Sol.-Gel. Sci. Tech"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1021\/ac970461b","article-title":"Tailoring of sol-gel films for optical sensing of oxygen in gas and aqueous phase","volume":"70","author":"McDonagh","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2009.11.076","article-title":"Photolithographic patterning of polymer-encapsulated optical oxygen sensors","volume":"87","author":"Nock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.07.009","article-title":"Application of frequency spectroscopy to fluorescence-based oxygen sensors","volume":"113","author":"Ogurtsov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(98)00185-3","article-title":"FLIM of luminescent oxygen sensors: clinical applications and results","volume":"51","author":"Stucker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.07.037","article-title":"Preparation of ormosil and its applications in the immobilizing biomolecules","volume":"114","author":"Tripathi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.09.062","article-title":"Optical oxygen sensing based on luminescence quenching of platinum porphyrin dyes doped in ormosil coatings","volume":"123","author":"Basu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1039\/B409814P","article-title":"Development of an integrated optic oxygen sensor using a novel, generic platform","volume":"130","author":"Burke","year":"2005","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anchem.1.031207.112823","article-title":"Nanoparticle PEBBLE sensors in live cells and in vivo","volume":"2","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.2","article-title":"Optical nanoparticle sensors for quantitative intracellular imaging","volume":"1","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Wires Nanomed. Nanobiol"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(96)79764-3","article-title":"Noninvasive imaging of the distribution in oxygen in tissue in vivo using near-infrared phosphors","volume":"70","author":"Vinogradov","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biophys. J"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1021\/am9001698","article-title":"Dendritic phosphorescent probes for oxygen imaging in biological systems","volume":"1","author":"Lebedev","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Inter"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3714","DOI":"10.1021\/ac802178u","article-title":"Hard top soft bottom microfluidic devices for cell culture and chemical analysis","volume":"81","author":"Mehta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2366","DOI":"10.1039\/c004856a","article-title":"Precise control over the oxygen conditions within the Boyden chamber using a microfabricated insert","volume":"10","author":"Oppegard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.10.036","article-title":"A microwell array device capable of measuring single-cell oxygen consumption rates","volume":"135","author":"Molter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095017","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/20\/9\/095017","article-title":"Using micro-patterned sensors and cell self-assembly for measuring the oxygen consumption rate of single cells","volume":"20","author":"Etzkorn","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2010.0135","article-title":"Tumor engineering: The other face of tissue engineering","volume":"16","author":"Ghajar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tiss. Eng. Pt. A"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2009.0689","article-title":"Microfluidic culture models of tumor angiogenesis","volume":"16","author":"Stroock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tiss. Eng. Pt. A"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/10\/9286\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:03:35Z","timestamp":1760220215000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/10\/9286"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,15]]},"references-count":143,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s101009286"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s101009286","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,15]]}}}